Chapter 25

1. Chapter 25 New Worlds in the Western Hemisphere

2. Begin by comparing the view point of Moteczuma on 669 to Columbus on 607 • What major assumptions about the interaction between the two can we make?

3. Questions to consider? • Conquest, exploitation, and interaction of Cultures • How did such powerful societies become subdued by such a small population of intruders? • What was the effect of the Europeans upon American Civilization? • How did the Western European nations differ in their New World relationships? • How do perspectives differ in these interactions? “The Broken Spears”

4. Colliding Worlds • Spanish mariners meet indigenous Tainos (Arawaks) • Columbus uses Hispaniola (Haiti-Dominican Republic) as base for trading with Tainos • Disappointed that Tainos had no spices, silks • ‘Recruited’ locals to mine gold instead using a system of forced labor called the ‘Encomienda’ • Encomienda: Forced labor system utilized by the Spanish upon the Natives.

5. Encomienda • Taino’s work in the mines and on Spanish lands in labor intensive cash cropping • Spaniards in return were to provide for physical welfare of Natives and convert them to Christianity • Is this what happened?

6. From Mining to Plantation Agriculture • Tainos occasionally rebel, but outgunned by Spanish military technology • Smallpox epidemics begin 1518 • Spaniards launch raids to kidnap and replace workers, spread disease further • Taino society disappears by middle of 16th century • Limited gold production causes new interest in Caribbean for sugarcane production • Requires massive importation of millions of slaves from West Africa (Triangle Trade begins)

7. Conquest of Mexico and Peru • Spanish conquerors (conquistadores) • Hernán Cortés and 450 men “bring down” Aztec empire in Mexico (1519-1521) • Smallpox destroys besieged Tenochtitlan • Forge a local alliance against Aztecs • Francisco Pizarro and 600 men “bring down” Inca empire in Peru (1532-1533) • Smallpox and manipulation of pre-existing differences • Calls conference of warring Inca rulers, massacres them all

8. Establishment of Viceroyalties • Most territories are conquistador-run until 1570 • Spanish Crown appoints viceroys to rules in the king’s name in the region • Two seats- Lima and Mexico City, where? • New Spain, New Castile, administered by viceroyalties and audencias

9. Portuguese Brazil • 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas divides entire (non-Christian) world between Spain and Portugal • Portugal claims Brazil • Little interest at first, but increases as other imperial powers take notice (dutch and french) • When Brazil presents potential for large-scale sugarcane production, Portugal begins to take a very large interest in the Colony after 1550

11. European empires and colonies in the Americas about 1700

12. Overall, New World is seen as a place to exploit rather than colonize (1500-1800 centuries, five hundred thousand Spanish colonists) Direct Royal Authority Urban, Empires in contact (Aztec, Inca) Early focus on export commodities (furs, pitch, lumber) then later shift to cash cropping No direct royal authority No indigenous concepts of land ownership Brings five million North American colonizers by 1800 Observations of Colonization EffortsIberian English/French

13. The Formation of Multicultural Societies • European, African migrants primarily men • Relationships with native women formed • Mestizo (mixed) societies formed • People of Spanish and native parentage • Descendants of Spaniards and African slaves (“mulattoes”) • Descendants of African slaves and natives (“zambos”) • Less pronounced in Peru, most prominent in Brazil

14. The Social Hierarchy • Race-based hierarchy • Top: peninsulares, i.e. migrants from Iberian peninsula • Criollos (creoles), i.e. children of migrants • Mestizos, mulattoes, zambos, other combinations of parentage • Bottom: slaves, conquered peoples

15. North American Societies • Higher ratio of French, English female migrants than in South America • Higher social stigma attached to relationships with natives, African slaves • English co-mingled the least of all settlers. • French Fur traders have relationships with North American native women • Children: métis

16. Mining in the Spanish Empire • Hunt for gold and silver • Conquistadores loot Aztec, Inca treasures and melt them down for their value as raw precious metals • Gold not extensive in Spanish holdings, but silver relatively plentiful • Extensive employment of natives • Incan mita system of conscripted labor (corvee) • Dangerous working conditions • Eventually assimilate into Spanish culture • 1/5 reserved for crown (quinto)

17. Quinto system cripples Spain • Why? • 1500’s • 1600’s

18. Encomienda shift • Encomienda system falls out of vogue after the viability of the ‘Hacienda’ system becomes apparent • Why enslave? Or mita? • Establishment of tributary systems based upon loans and land grants in agricultural settlements ensures stable income of tribute and consistent indentured labor

19. The Hacienda • Large estates produce products of European origin • Replaces Encomienda system of utilizing native labor force • Rampant abuses 1520-1540 • Gradually replaced by debt patronage • Peasants repay loans with cheap labor

20. A Hacienda in Chile

21. Methods of Resistance to Spanish Rule • Rebellion? Peublo Revolt, Tupac Amaru • Half-hearted work • Retreat into mountains and forests • Appeal to Spanish crown • 1,200 page letter of Guaman Poma de Ayala, 1615

22. Sugar and Slavery in Portuguese Brazil • Sugar mill: engenho, refers to complex of land, labor, etc. all related to production of sugar • Sugarcane to molasses, or refined to sugar for export • Low profit margins • Unlike Spanish system of forced native labor, Portuguese rely on imported African slaves • Natives continually evaded Portuguese forces • Large-scale importing of slaves begins 1580s • Poor working conditions : 5-10% die annually • Approximately one human life per ton of sugar

25. Development of Cash Crops • Products developed for European markets • Tobacco • Rice • Indigo • Cotton • Increases demand for imported slave labor • European indentured servants, 4-7 year terms • Chronically unemployed, orphans, political prisoners and criminals

26. Export of Tobacco from Virginia

27. Slavery in North America • African slaves in Virginia from 1610 • Increasingly replace European indentured laborers, late 17th-early 18th centuries • Less prominent in north due to weak nature of cash-crop industry • Slave trading still important part of economy • Also, products made through slave labor • Rum, based on sugar from plantations

28. Missionary Activity in the Americas • Franciscan, Dominican, Jesuit missionaries from 16th century • Taught Christian doctrine, literacy • Due to conquest and plague, many natives in Spanish America concluded that their gods had abandoned them, converted to Catholicism • Yet often retained elements of pagan religion in Christian worship

29. The Virgin of Guadalupe

30. French and English Missions • Less effective than Spanish missions • Spaniards ruled native populations more directly • Migration patterns of North American natives • Generally less interested, particularly the English

31. Global Significance of Silver • Major resource of income for Spanish crown • Financed extended bureaucracy and military • Manila Galleons take it to the Pacific rim for trading • Very popular with Chinese markets • Transition to precious metal coins • Trade in the Atlantic basin

32. Manila galleon route and the lands of Oceania, 1500-1800