Strengthening mental health in Civil Aviation

1. HUMAN FACTORS, 1984,26(5),499-508 A Brief History of Aviation Psychology JEFFERSON M. KOONCE,l University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts This paper presents an overview of the field of aviation psychology from its pre- World War I beginnings to current problems and opportunities brief survey covers some of the more significant the United States and Europe. for today's aviation psychologists. early activities of aviation psychologists This in they were not called aviation but were learned persons, often trained in the fields of medicine, psychology, ology, who had an interest in getting the right persons for the tasks and who were concerned about the effects of the tasks on the persons. The demands of early aviation psychophysiological, tion of the skills of flying, the unique percep- tual requirements, and the physical placed on the body. psychologists, ... the design of aircraft, particularly and controls, the study of the perceptual nitive processes associated with flying, work on the selection and training of pilots and ground sonnel, and the development dures for operating, maintaining craft (Kearsley, 1981, p. 10). aviation psychology encompasses research on cockpit displays and cog- and/or physi- per- and testing of proce- and tracking air- A broader that it is the application edge concerning bilities and limitations aviation, including crew members, managers and controllers control system, persons involved maintenance count draws on a report by North and Griffin (1977) and an earlier paper of mine (Koonce, 1979), as well as on numerous munica tions. view of aviation psychology is were largely the acquisi- of the body of knowl- humans' behavioral to the general field of the performance support crews, in the air traffic airport personnel, with the design, of aircraft. The following involving capa- stresses of flight passengers, THE FIRST WORLD WAR and those sale, and During used as an active great emphasis pabilities selecting them. With this, aviation know it today got its true start. According to Paul M. Fitts (1947a; sixth president Human Factors Society), the first psycholog- ical testing center for the armed established in Germany tion of motor transport tinued to be used in Germany during the First World War, particularly pilots, sound detector operators, craft gunners. the First World War aviation part was put on improving of the early air machines and training was and of the conflict, ac- the ca- and on persons psychology to operate personal com- as we HOW IT STARTED of the With the beginnings this century, erators and the effects of the new environ- ment on the operators the early aviation psychologists. of aviation early in forces was the capabilities of human op- in 1915 for the selec- drivers. Tests con- became a concern Actually, of for the selection and antiair- of 1 Requests Koonce, Department herst, MA 01003. for reprints should be sent to Jefferson M. of IEOR, U. of Massachusetts, Am- © 1984, The Human Factors Society, Inc. All rights reserved. Downloaded from hfs.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016

2. SOO-October, 1984 HUMAN FACTORS Later in the summer of 1917the committee was expanded to include Edward 1. Thorn- dike (21st president of APA)as executive sec- retary, Major John B.Watson (25th president of APA), Warner Brown, Francis Maxfield, and H. C. McComas. The chair of the com- mittee was George M. Stratton (17th presi- dent of APA),who had been working on tests for aviators at Rockwell Field in San Diego before joining the committee. Thorndike di- rected a comparative analysis of the tests in the battery with those persons who were and were not successful number of tests were selected as promising, and Captains Stratton and V.A.C. Henmon tried them out at Rockwell Field and Kelly Field (Henmon, 1919). Out of a battery of 10 tests, those showing the greatest relationship performance were emotional stability, per- ception oftilt, and mental alertness. The term emotional stability did not have the meaning it has today. Tests ofemotional stability both in the United States and abroad were tests to measure an individual's responses to sudden excitation, typically from a loud noise such as a pistol shot. In terms of attrition, approx- imately 50% to 60% of the applicants were eliminated by the examiners, another 15% "washed out" of the ground school, and still there were at least 6% who were eliminated during flying training for inaptitude. The War Department authorized the Med· ical Research Board in October, 1917, to in- vestigate the phases of fljght bearing on the medical and physical aspects of the aviators. Research by Major Knight Dunlap (1919; 31st president of APA)at the psychology section of the Medical Research Laboratory at Ha- zelhurst Field, Long Island, led to the devel- opment of a series of psychological tests to predict an aviation candidate's cope with high-altitude flight. Bagby (1921) reported that they used the Henderson Breathing Apparatus to simulate the effects Aviator Selection and Training The focus of aviation psychology early days was on the selection and training of the operators to perform the daring task of aviating. Later the focus of aviation chology seemed to shift to the aircraft itself, with particular emphasis on the controls and displays and the effects of altitude, G-forces, noise, temperature, and other environmental stressors on the operator. In April, 1917, the Aviation Section of the Signal Corps had only 52 trained pilots. At the time of the armistice front-line strength was 740 combat aircraft and almost 1400 pilots and observers (J0- sephy, 1962). As Henmon pointed out, in the beginning the examiners were to "select men of good education and high character, men who were in every way qualified and fitted to be officers of the U.S. Army.... " The aviator was not to be an "ae- rial chauffeur" but a "twentieth century cav- alry officer mounted on Pegasus." in the psy- in learning to fly. A the Americans' (1919, p. 103) to flight-training Enter the Psychologists The need to expand the number of aviators rapidly was foreseen, and during the early stages of the war the Council of the American Psychological Association established a Com- mittee on Psychological Problems of Avia- tion. In November, 1918, that committee be- came a subcommittee search Council. Two early members, W. R. Miles (40th president of the American Psy- chological Association; the reader may be surprised at how many APApresidents have been concerned with aviation psychology) and 1.T. Troland, worked on the develop- ment of mental and physiological tests to de- termine aptitude for flying. The evaluation of the tests, 23 in all, was begun in June, 1917, by giving them to Army Aviation Cadets at- tending the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology ground school. of the National Re- ability to Downloaded from hfs.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016

3. October, 1984-501 HISTORY OF AVIATION PSYCHOLOGY of altitude and administered sory, motor performance, tention tests. The result was a standardized test sent out to field units for administration to Aviation Cadets. Many other research projects dealing with the selection of candidates and the effects of stressors were conducted in the United States during the First World War. In the summer of 1917 Major John B. Watson was assigned to orga- nize methods for the selection of personnel. He also assembled a group of psychologists who worked with medical officers and phys- iologists in studying aviation problems at the Bureau of Mines in Washington 1921). Another psychologist, (1919), who later gained primate intelligence (and as 26th president of APA),was also involved in the development of tests for the selection dates. a battery of sen- memory, So, in addition to the tests of physiological and medical functioning, ducted on reaction time, attention, emotional stability, muscular sensation, muscular effort, and equilibrium. esting finding by Saffiotti, studying aviators suffering nervous exhaustion from duty at the front, was that their visual reaction were longer than others, but their aural reac- tion times were faster and showed greater variability than those of other aviators. In their studies of emotional reactions they used a pistol shot, an automobile the explosion of a firecracker to serve as an emotive stimulus. The responses were changes in circulation, and tremor of the hand. They noted that there were increases in reaction times from expo- sure to the emotive creases of only 10% or less were considered "good," whereas increases greater than 25% were considered poor and disqualifying. The Italians placed a good bit of emphasis on the candidate's performance equilibrium. The most Barany rotating-chair American researchers Woodrow, later head of the psychology de- partment of the University 49th president of APA).Other tests of equilib- rium were the rotary vertigo test and the tilt test, in which one would have to right oneself, and which suffered from the confounding ef- fects of the induced vertigo. In general, the Italians did not disqualify a person on the basis of one test but tended to develop an overall profile of the applicant. They felt that the pursuit pilots had a better ability to perceive their body position; lower visual, aural, and choice reaction times; and lower average deviations The pursuit pilots' resistance stimuli was not necessarily greater than that of others. But the pilots of the "slow ma- chines," presumably transport and at- studies were con- perception An inter- of for pilot training on the aviators times claxon, or observed breathing rate, (Kellogg, Robert Yerkes fame researching stimuli, and that in- of aviation candi- Similarities and Differences on tests of was the also liked including favored test, Dockeray and Isaacs (1921) reviewed the ef- forts in aviation psychology France, England, and the United during the war years. Italy. The Italians developed a fairly exten- sive research program in selecting persons for flight training. A major effort was performed in laboratories at Turin, Naples, and Rome, under the direction of Gieuseppe Gradenigo. The initial work compared of successful, mediocre, aviators and concluded plane pilot was one "who to a notable degree of extension and distribution adds constancy, precision, ability of the psycho-motor possesses a sufficient emotive reactions not to be disturbed above functions on account stimulus" (Dockeray 116). by research in Italy, States Herbert of Illinois (and the performances and unsuccessful that the good air- of attention, coordinating activity, and who inhibitory in reaction to the emotive times. power of in the of emotional 1921, p. and Isaacs, and bomber Downloaded from hfs.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016

4. S02-0ctober, 1984 HUMAN FACTORS aircraft, were thought to be of the muscular type in reaction time. France. The French tended to emphasize reaction time and studies of emotional sta- bility. Their use of emotional stability was based on a test quite similar to that already described for the Italians; however, they used the results of the reaction-time tests and the emotional stability tests together to develop five classes of candidates. that were not acceptable for flight training were those who had reaction times with large deviations and greatly exaggerated tional responses, and those who had very ir- regular reaction times but did not show ex- cessive emotional responses. England. The researchers in Great Britain paid little attention to reaction time and re- sponses to emotional stimuli; instead, they attended to the effects of altitude flying and simple motor coordination their experiments were designed to collect physiological data such as pulse rate, blood pressure, and expiration using a manometer designed for this purpose. The coordination tests consisted things as walking a line heel-to-toe fashion and turning on one foot, standing on one foot for 15 seconds with the eyes open or closed, and a test for tremor of the hands and the tongue. The presence of tremor was found to be highly correlated with poor aptitude to fly. Captain Dockeray sought to get an insight into the personality of the aviators by taking the training and being assigned to flight duty. About the personality of the aviators, he ob- served that no general law could be stated, but he ventured the conclusion that "What seems most needed by the aviator is intelli- gence, that is, the power of quick adjustment to a new situation and good judgment" (Dockeray and Isaacs, 1921,p. 147). Germany. Soon after the First World War, Germany began to rebuild its military forces, and in 1920the War Ministry issued an order to develop psychology in the Army. By the late 1920s, psychological testing and selec- tion procedures were well established. fact, by 1927 all officer training candidates were given a psychological examination. Paul Metz was the director of a staff of psycholo- gists who developed a testing program for the new Luftwaffe in 1939,and it continued to be used through 1942. The program was based on that already in use by the Army. Ans- bacher (1941) provides German military psychology program from 1926through 1940,and Fitts (l947a) provides an account of the development and applica- tion of psychology in Germany during this period and on into the Second World War. According to Fitts (1947a, p. 156),"As late as 1942the program for selecting German Air Force officers was essentially that established for ground officers in 1927." There were a few specialized tests for the aircrew members be- yond those used for the ground officers. After the program was discontinued, the selection ofpilots was conducted at the local recrui ting stations by the recruiting medical examiners. They used some paper- and-pencil tests along with sports tests, but it seems that the major emphasis was placed on interviews and personal materials brought by the applicants to attest to their skills, per- sonality, intellect, and general character. United States. In the U.S., aviation was fea- The two classes emo- In tests. Most of force and time, a review of the of such DURING THE PEACE Toward the end of the war and after the armistice, officers of the Medical Research Laboratory attached to the American Expe- ditionary Forces in Europe administered many tests to aviators to identify the char- acteristics of those who were successful. Many of these efforts were to validate tests that had been developed in the States on pilot trainees and to see how some of the tests de- veloped by U.S. allies would compare with those originating in the United States. officers and the Downloaded from hfs.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016

5. October, 1984-503 HISTORY OF AVIATION PSYCHOLOGY tured as barnstorming was not all of aviation. In the ensuing years, speed and altitude records fell one after the other. In the 1937 volume of the Journal of Comparative Psychology, (14th president of The Human ciety) had published several articles effects of altitude on people. The aircraft also became important for the more useful tasks of mail delivery and commercial after the war. But that by such notables such as Sidney Bijou, Philip DuBois, Paul Fitts, Robert Gagne, Frank Gel- dard, J. P. Guilford (58th president Arthur Melton, Neal Miller (69th president of APA),and R. L. Thorndike. Of particular interest were Volume 4, Ap- paratus Tests, edited by Arthur Melton (1947); Volume 8, Psychological Training, edited by Neal Miller (1947); and Volume 19, Psychological Research on Equip- ment Design, edited by Paul Fitts (1947b). The Fitts report seems to have been the first major publication on human neering. Two years later, Donald B. Lindsley (1949) edited another, in Undersea Warfare, foreword by Walter S. Hunter (39th president of APA). of APA), Ross McFarland Factors So- on the Research on Pilot air travel. WORLD WAR II In 1939 the National Committee tablished. This group, first chaired Jenkins of the University later by Morris Viteles of the University Pennsylvania, supported wide range of research chology. Alexander flight research at the University of Maryland in 1939 (and on December unteered as a Naval Aviator). In 1940, John Flanagan was recruited aviation psychology program, the following year with Arthur Melton, Frank Geldard, and Paul Horst as the nucleus of the research group. Two comprehensive reviewing the role of aviation psychology be- fore World War II were by Pratt (1941) and the Committee on Selection and Training of Pilots (1942). Research Council was es- by Jack factors engi- on Aviation Psychology titled Human with a much-quoted Factors of Maryland and of a and stimulated in aviation C. Williams, psy- Tests, Tests, Tests Jr., began Asone might suspect, the efforts of aviation psychologists during World War II strongly emphasized the selection aviators, including pilots, bombardiers, and the effects of interfacing these persons with the new equipment developed. To a lesser extent, research conducted on fatigue, vigilance, target detec- tion, high G-forces, protective cial equipment for extremes of altitude temperature, and perhaps speech intelligibility J. C. R. Licklider (the inventor of peak clip- ping), Karl D. Kryter, and George A. Miller (77th president of APA)at Harvard University (Licklider and Miller, noted that the research chology was not restricted Corps. The Navy had many of the same re- search concerns. Other reviews of the research taken place during this era were published in psychological journals. research section of the Department chology of the School of Aviation Medicine 8, 1941. he vol- and training navigators, of and to set up the Army's which started being was articles clothing, spe- and most notable, at high altitudes, by The Blue Books The efforts during the war years in the U.S. Army Air Forces Aviation gram (1947) were thoroughly a series of 19 books, later to be known as the "blue books." A few of the psychologists sociated with this program field of aviation psychology, entered academia and gained fame in other areas. Volume 1, authored (1947), gave an overview of the entire avia- tion psychology program. Others were edited 1951). It should in aviation to the Army Air be Psychology documented Pro- psy- in as- continued whereas in the many that had The members of the of Psy- by John Flanagan Downloaded from hfs.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016

6. HUMAN FACTORS S04-0ctober, 1984 (1944)published the results of their research program on psychomotor teles (1945a, 1945b)reviewed five years of re- search on the aircraft pilot, giving details of the Army Alpha test and the psychomotor testing that had been performed during that time. Another review of the work in aviation psychology during World War II was pre- sented by Viteles in Boring and Lindzey's (1967) A History of Psychology raphy, Volume 5. (Edwin Gardner Lindzey were the 37th and 75th presidents of APA,respectively.) Enter the Universities tests. Morris Vi- Several university were developed, often under contract to the U.S. government, to look at aviation-related problems. Stanley N. Roscoe (1980; fourth president ofthe Human Factors Society), who had served as an Army Air Corps pilot, tells about the founding chology Laboratory at the University of Illi- nois in January, 1946, by Alexander C. Wil- liams, Jr., who had served as a Naval Aviator. The research was focused on the transfer pilot training from simulators (Williams and Ralph E. Flexman reported the first such experiment anywhere in 1949)and on the conceptual foundations for mission analysis and flight display and control design (Williams, 1947,1971, 1980).Williams stayed with the university until 1955, when he re- joined Roscoe, then at Hughes Aircraft Com- pany. He was succeeded at Illinois by Robert C.Houston for two years and then by Jack A. Adams until 1965, when the laboratory was temporarily closed. Aviation psychology at the Ohio State Uni- versity began in January, 1945, with the es- tablishment of the Midwest Institute of Avia- tion Psychology under the School of Aviation by a grant from the National Research Coun- cil's Committee on Selection and Training of Aircraft Pilots, chaired by Morris S. Viteles. It was to be an interdisciplinary program for the conduct ofresearch" in a number ofareas including psychology, physiology, physics and applied optics, medicine, engineering, meteorology and agriculture" (Bevis, 1945). Ohio State's Aviation Psychology Labora- tory was opened in 1949 under the direction of Paul Fitts. Fitts left the Air Force's engi- neering psychology program in the capable hands of WaIter F. Grether. Aviation psy- chology research was also conducted at the University of Pennsylvania Universi ty. The enthusiasm ofthe researchers research laboratories of the Aviation Psy- in Autobiog- G. Boring and of to airplanes COMING OF AGE After the Second World War, aviation psy- chology was here to stay, as evidenced by a proliferation ofbooks and articles on the sub- ject (Varney, 1950). Colonel Paul Fitts re- mained as chief of the Psychology Branch of the Aero Medical Laboratory until 1949. Ar- thur W.Melton and Charles W.Bray built the Air Force Personnel and Training Research Center (commonly referred to as "Afpatrick") into the largest military psychological search organization until then (and possibly until now). Human engineering research and application in the Navy was centered at the Naval Electronics Laboratory Field near Washington, D.C.,under the lead- ership of Franklin V. Taylor and the genius of Henry P. Birmingham (Birmingham and Taylor, 1954). Similar to the pattern after the First World War, some of the professionals working with the armed forces remained in uniform or in civil service after the war, whereas many others got out and went to school on the GI Bill. Some, who had completed their educa- tion before the war,left to apply their knowl- edge as university faculty members. Thus, the military experiences ofaviation were brought to the campuses of universities thereafter to industry. re- at Bolling and at Purdue and soon Downloaded from hfs.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016

7. October, 1984-505 HISTORY OF AVIATION PSYCHOLOGY Enter the eM at these laboratories, the support new know ledge gai ned from their fanned the fires to keep them going. The re- search laboratories at Illinois and Ohio State have had their ups and downs, but they are still both very active at this time. Another academic program in aviation psy- chology worth special note is the one at Hei- delberg College in Tiffin, Ohio (Wise, 1979). It is not as old as the others having been started in the late 1960s, but it is believed to be the only undergraduate gram in aviation psychology States. The program was developed still directed by Leon Wise. It offers under- graduates the unique ining the field before "it becomes a career commitment" (p. 2). the glamour contracts, of flight, and the efforts of research During the 1940s and into the 1950s, the Civil Aeronautics Administration research on human mainly through the auspices teles's aforementioned Council Committee on Aviation Psychology. The principal product search, performed mostly by universities, was another outstanding documented in the "gray Number 92, written in 1950 by S. N. Roscoe, J. F. Smith, B. E. Johnson Johnson Matheny), P. E. Dittman, Williams, Jr., reported experimental simulator type VOR/DME navigation ploying a CRT in the cockpit. (Yes, Boeing, that was in 1950.) Under another part of this program at the University of Illinois, Matheny developed the first air traffic control simulator. The tracks "crabs," traveling over maps on tables in one large room, were telemetered to CRT displays in the "control tower" next door (Johnson, Williams, and Roscoe, 1951). This entire fa- cility was moved to the CAA's Technical De- velopment and Evaluation napolis, where William "crab tracks" to the actual CRTs in the In- dianapolis tower, and the crab "pilots" were "controlled" along with the pilots of the real airplanes flying in the area. That was the start of the giant computerized tion facility now at the FAA's Technical Center in Atlantic City. It was during the same period that Paul Fitts, and later George E. Briggs, also began studying air traffic control at Ohio State, and Conrad 1. Kraft did his studies on "broad- band blue" control-room Fitts chaired a blue-ribbon posed of A.Chapanis, F. C.Frick, W. R. Garner, sponsored in aviation, of Morris Vi- National factors Research of the contract re- series of studies cover reports." mentioned, pro- (now Beatrice and A. C. the first comparative evaluation of a map- display in the United and is experience of exam- em- Enter the Airlines Beatrice Johnson Thomas Gordon (1949) reported a study of the methods used by airlines in the selection and evaluation of pilots and of efforts to de- termine the critical requirements line pilot's job. Gordon compared tion test scores of pilots released for lack of flying proficiency with the scores of those who were successful and showed that the seven selection variables failed to discriminate between the successful and unsuccessful pilots. that new selection procedures mented and that more objective means of as- sessing pilot proficiency be developed. The airline pilot, and most of the support systems, were of major Farland's revised text, Human Transportation (1953). That text was a sum- mary of the then-current broad areas of avia tion human factors in air transportation. also included material ology, and engineering of 16 Link trainer of the air- the selec- Center in India- E. Jackson (currently employed) fed the He recommended be imple- ATC simula- concern in Mc- Factors in Air knowledge psychology in the and The text physi- lighting. committee In 1951, com- on medicine, design. Downloaded from hfs.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016

8. HUMAN FACTORS S06-0ctober, 1984 J. W. Gebhard, W. F. Grether, R. H. Hen- neman, W.E. Kappauf, E. B. Newman, and A.C.Williams, Jr. (Fitts, 1951).Their product was the now-classic neering for an Effective Traffic-Control System, published by the NRC Committee on Aviation Psychology. Soon thereafter, George Miller (1956) made an- other of his many contributions to aviation psychology (and to psychology in general) with the publication Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Infor- mation." (2) by meetings, professional contacts, dis- cussions, and publications, provement of the education and research in- terests of psychologists with respect to avia- tion needs and problems, advancing the application of psychological principles and research to the promotion of aviation safety and welfare. Articles dealing with aviation psychology have generally been published in such jour- nals as Human Factors; Aviation, Environmental Medicille; Ergonomics; Ergonomics; Systems, and several of the journals of the American Psychological Association. Roscoe, who had returned to the University of Illinois in 1969 to found the new Aviation Research Laboratory, began publication Aviatiol1 Research MOllographs. was discontinued a year later, but Roscoe's (1980)book, Aviation Psychology, summarizes the contents of the monographs as well as other research conducted at the University of Illinois Airport and at Hughes Aircraft Com- pany between 1946and 1977. (3) by the im- report, Air-Navigation Human Engi- and and (4) by of "The Magical Space, and Applied Man, and Cybernetics; In 1971, Stan Reenter the Europeans In 1956, a group of nine aviation psychol- ogists in Europe started Western European Association for Aviation Psychologists (WEAAP). That organization holds conferences once every two years and presently has more than 100 members. The aviation psychologists more attention to clinical factors in the se- lection offlight-training candidates and in pi- lots' general behavior than do those in the United States. wha t is now the of This series of the WEAAP pay PROSPECTUS Most of the research in aviation psychology has been focused on the controls and displays in the cockpit and the selection and training of flight crew members. But recent changes in social behavior and the international po- litical climate have caused a broadening of the scope of some aviation psychologists. For example, aviation psychologists have become engaged with the study and identification of persons involved in terrorist activities, and more and more they are serving as expert witnesses in aircraft accident litigation. Aproblem that has emerged as potentially greater than the "knobs and dials" of the cockpit is communications, or lack thereof, in the aviation environment. In a selection of papers edited by Billings and Cheaney (1981), several problems in the transfer of informa- Meanwhile, Out West In the United States, a group of psycholo- gists would gather at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association and do some social "hanger flying." In 1964, a group of these psychologists, who wanted to use those annual gatherings more formal exchange of information about their professional interests formed the Association of Aviation Psychol- ogists. Their meetings are now held in con- junction with the annual Human Factors Society each October. The purpose of the association is to pro- mote aviation psychology and related aero- space and environmental stimulating the dissemination of knowledge, to conduct a in aviation, meeting of the disciplines (1) by Downloaded from hfs.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016

9. October, 1984-507 HISTORY OF AVIATION PSYCHOLOGY tion are discussed: briefing of relief control- lers on the ground, communications the controllers and the aircraft they are con- trolling and among flight themsel ves, and emergency communications. Asinnocuous as these areas may seem, a brief review of aviation mishaps (Jackson, 1983) indicates that such areas are critical to the safe operation system and are in great need of further study. Even further from the cockpit than these areas is one that has had little systematic at- tention in recent years, although the problem grows greater daily. That area is the entire airport terminal: from passenger, and cargo processing nance, fuel handling, Despite the multitude areas, the field of aviation psychology seems to respond as if these problems from the cockpit or the control tower to war- rant attention. The air route traffic controllers ceived the attention of aviation psychologists in the area of workload stressors and their impact on efficient and safe management the flight environment only are the controllers terest, but the advances technology has given to us have impacted the controllers' ment with a host of new types of displays and the use of computers to aid in the sharing of the workload. The problems of selection and training of aviation personnel continue to be with us. Al- though one may wonder why, 40 years fol- lowing the establishment tion psychology program, perform research on the training of pilots. However, considering dramatic changes that have taken place in the aircraft industry and the air forces and airlines of the world, not to mention a robust space program, one can see the challenges in personnel selection, as well as training, that are faced by aviation psychologists today. The rapid advances of technology have im- pacted the cockpit environment with displays projected on the windscreen or the operator's helmet visor, "glass" instrument multifunction electronic displays, keyboards by which the pilots enter data into their on- board computers, voice interactive that will permit pilots to listen and talk to their computers, fly-by-wire control systems, and the ability of computers to share the op- erator's workload. It seems that the future promises limitless opportunities psychologists. between crew members air- to-ground panels with systems of the aviation for aviation ACKNOWLEDGMENT baggage, mainte- The author for his many valuable and for the addi tional information article on the history of aviation wishes to acknowledge comments Stanley N. Roscoe editorial to aircraft and systems support. of problems regarding he contributed psychology. style to this in these REFERENCES are too far Ansbacher, chological Bulletin, 38, 370-392. Bagby, E. (1921). The psychological privation.Journal Bevis, H. L. (1945). Proposal Ohio State University Columbus OH: The Presidents' Billings, C. B., and Cheaney, transfer problems Paper 1875). Washington, Birmingham, H. P., and Taylor, F. V. (1954). A human en- gineering approach to the design o( man-operated tinuous control systems ington, DC: Naval Research Psychology Branch. Boring, E. G., and Lindzey, chology in autobiography Cen tury Crofts. Committee on Selection and Training of Pilots. (1942). His- torical introduction to aviation psychology 4). Washington, DC: Civil Aeronautics Division of Research. Dockeray, F. C., and Isaacs, search in aviation in Italy, Journal o(Comparative Psychology, Dunlap, K. (1919). Psychological ence, 49, 94-97. Fisher, K. (1984, April). Behavioral maintain safety in the skies. APA Monitor, 20ff. Fitts, P. M. (l947a). German World War II. American Psychologist, Fitts, P. M. (Ed.). (I 947b). Psychological research on equip- ment design (Research Report U.S. Army Air Forces Aviation Psychology Program. Fitts, P. M. (Ed.). (1951). Human engineering (or an effective air-navigation and traffic-control DC: National Research Council Committee Psychology. Flanagan, J. C. (Ed.). (1947). The aviation psychology pro- H. L. (1941). German military psychology. Psy- effects of oxygen dc- Psychology, for the establishment Institute of Aviation Psychology. Office. E. S. (l98J).ln(ormation in the aviation system. DC: NASA. o(Comparative J, 97-113. of the have re- of (Technical (Fisher, themselves 1984). Not of in- con- (Report NRL 4333). Wash- Laboratory, Engineering environ- G. (1967). A history (Vol. 5). New York: Appleton o( psy- (Report No. Administration, S. (1921). Psychological France J, 115-148. research re- and England. of the Army's avia- we still need to selection in aviation. Sci- research helps FAA and the applied psychology 1,151-161. during 19). Washington, DC: system. Washington, on Aviation Downloaded from hfs.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016

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