GRAZING TASK INSIGHTS

1. GRAZING TASK INSIGHTS Changes in writing style: Battle-fatigued soldiers referred to as "burdens to the Army" Changes in permissible topics "The vampire kith and kin"Nature, 1929 Evolution of field, e.g. neuroimaging starts with animals, now address musicality, Rate of change in 10-15 yrs. Obsolescence of hard-copies: new volumes no longer offered in stacks. Sensory aspect of library: "The 'feel' of touching embossed letters of books", "the smell of old books filled the air." Grazing and serendipity: From "Learning and memory" to "American Sea Songs" Serenity of library search: "Look...without the blaring '10,000 articles returned'", "Calming to sit and read." The poignancy of "forgotten work" : "the older volumes were stuck together; it was as if they hadn't been touched in years." The price of on-line "efficiency": loss of "what it felt like to ...search...the stacks."

2. THEORY AND SEEING HMAS Sydney Sunk in Indian Ocean 1941; Found (in part) Via Cog. Psychology 2008 http://www.npr.org/2011/09/27/140816037/how-psychology-solved-a-wwii-shipwreck-mystery Bartlett's War of the Ghosts schema research, ca. 1930 Create "deviation maps" from Bartlett's original subjects Apply same method to German sailors' stories

3. Class 6 Concepts and Variables (concluded)

4. Most General Hypothesis Interracial feedback is biased. General Hypothesis Feedback from whites to blacks is positively biased. Specific Hypothesis When whites provide performancefeedback for sub-standard work, their feedback will be positively biased if they believe that the feedback recipient is black rather than white. Experimental Hypothesis White undergraduatesinstructed to critiquepoorly written essays for purposes of feedback will provide more positive feedback if informed that the essay writer is black rather than white. Experiments as Expressions of Hypotheses

5. Diagramming the Experimental Sentence White undergraduate students instructed to critiquepoorly written essays for ...feedback will provide more positive feedback if informed that the writer is Black rather than White. Operational Definition Students who identify themselves as White, not Hispanic, on a survey. write comments on spelling, content, etc. on the essay essays contain 5 spelling errors, 14 grammar errors, 5 content errors subjects’ copy edited comments on essays are supposedly returned to the writer no. of positive comments – no. of neg. comments subjects read “self description sheet” supposedly completed by writer that indirectly indicates race, and confirmed by post-expt. manipulation check. Construct White undergraduate students instructed to critique poorly written essays for … feedback will provide more positive feedback if informed that the writer is Black rather than White

6. Lending a Hand: Social Regulation of the Neural Response to Threat [Coan, J., Schaefer, H., & Davidson, R., (2006) Psych. Science, 17, 1032-1039] ...For this fMRI study, 16 married women were subjected to the threat of electric shock while holding their husband’s hand, the hand of an anonymous male experimenter, or no hand at all. Results indicated an attenuation of activation [in systems regulating threat] when women held their husband’s hand. Most strikingly, the effects of spousal hand-holding on neural threat varied as a function of marital quality ... . What’s the hypothesis? What are the constructs, the IV, the DV, the operations?

7. Attributes and Aliases of IV and DV Independent Variable (IV) Dependent Variable (DV) Effect Cause Consequent Antecedent Event that E. tries to predict Event that E. controls or selects Change in “Y” Change in “X” 

8. Examples of Independent and Dependent Variables Independent Variable Dependent Variable Race of feedback partners  Feedback bias Social context  Moral choices (NY vs. Ghakistan) NOTE: IV can be DV can be IV IV DV Group pressure  Conformity Conformity  Feedback bias

9. Active vs. Attributive Variables Active (manipulated): Variables that are manipulated by the experimenter Friendliness of the confederate Quality of essay Attributive (measured): Variables that cannot be manipulated, but are inherent properties. AKA "organismic variables." Gender of confederate Age of subject

10. Latent Variables Latent variables are variables that cannot be directly measured. Latent variables are “emergent” – they arise from the joint association of more particular, measurable variables. Latent variables are sometimes referred to as “factors” Factor analysis is method used to discover and confirm latent variables.

11. Latent Variables in Feedback Study: Essay Mechanics = ?????? ????? = Development of argument, clarity of ideas, quality of evidence, interesting presentation, persuasive

12. Latent Variables in Feedback Study: Mechanics vs. Content Mechanics: Spelling, grammar, word choice Content: Development of argument, clarity of ideas, quality of evidence, interesting presentation, persuasive

13. SPSS Factor Analysis Results

14. Factor Loadings of Two Factor Measure: Social Support Opinion Survey

15. Social Support Opinion Survey (Harber, et al., JASP, 38, 1463-1505)

16. NAME THAT VARIABLE Age induces wisdom. Age is? Independent Variable Arousal induced by 50 jumping jacks. Arousal is? Active Variable Left-handed vs. Right handed Attributive Variable Like self + believe in self + rely on self + listen to self = Esteem Latent Variable Health is affected by exercise. Health is? Dependent Variable

17. Moderators and Mediators Class 7

18. Breaking News: Mud Improves Memory!!! FLASH! Explorers in the Amazon have discovered an amazing “memory mud”. When smeared on the forehead it vastly improves short term memory. However, it appears that “mem-mud” works only for certain kinds of people in certain places at certain times. The mud appears to have its powerful effects because it ……[SIGNAL LOST]. What questions arise? Who does it work for, under what conditions, at what times? Why does it work?

19. Moderators, Mediators, and Mem-mud Moderator:What are the conditions under which Mem-mud works, and for whom does it work? Mediator:Why does Mem-mud work Moderator: The limiting conditions that determine and effect or outcome (e.g., when, or for whom) Mediator: The underlying cause; Why something occurs.

20. MODERATOR DEFINED A moderator is a variable that affects the direction or strength of the relationship between a predictor (IV) and an outcome (DV). A  B, if C is a moderator model. A = Predictor B = Outcome C = Moderator Changes in the moderator will affect the relation between IV and DV.   Moderators directly explain how and when events occur (but can also indirectly indicate why they occur). Moderator can be: * qualitative variable (race, sex, etc.) * quantitative variable (perceived risk, mood)

21. MODERATOR DEFINED, Cont. Moderator is always an Independent Variable Moderator should be un-correlated to DV Moderators sought when there is weak or inconsistent relationship between IV and DV. Moderator confirmed only if interaction between moderator and main IV is significant.

22. Uncontrollable Event (World Economy Fails) Controllable Event (Made Bad Investments) Event ↔ illness r = .56 Event ↔ illness r = .18 Moderation: Correlation Between IV and DV is High in One Condition But Not in Another. These two results say what about bad events and illness? Major life events  increased illness, IF event is uncontrollable. Moderator is? CONTROLLABILITY

23. MODERATOR MODEL Predictor (IV) Moderators (IV) Outcome Variable (DV) Predictor X Moderator P X M Interaction Must be significant Recipient race (IV) Self-image risk(IV) Feedback Positivity (DV) Race X Risk p < .005

24. Feedback Bias With and Without Content/Mechanics as Moderator

25. Moderator “Recipes” a. IV is qualitative (dichotomous, polychotomous, Mod. is qualitatitve (dichotomous, polychotomous) b. IV is qualitative, Mod. is quantitative c. IV is quantitative, Mod. is qualitative d. IV is quantitative, Mod. is quantitative

26. Social Context, Disclosure, and Baby Cries Primary IV? Social Contact Moderator Disclosure DV? Distress Rating Recipe? IV is Qualitative, and Moderator is Qualitative

27. Height Perception as Function of Social ContactAdapted from Schnall, Harber, Stefanucci, & Proffitt, 2008;Results amplified for purposes of illustration Primary IV? Social Contact Moderator Duration DV? Hill slant Recipe? IV is Qualitative, and Moderator is Quantitative

28. Primary IV? Depression Moderator Gender DV? Endorsement of Directive Support Recipe? IV is Quantitative, and Moderator is Qualitative

29. Self Esteem and the Use of Affect as Information (Harber, 2005) Mild upset = 1 SD < mean, Moderate upset = mean, Extreme upset = 1 SD > mean. Primary IV? Upset Moderator Esteem DV? Baby Cry Ratings Recipe? IV is Qualitative and Moderator is Qualitative

30. MEDIATION 1. History: S  R explanations do not address full range of psychological phenomena. In many cases, SOR makes more sense. 2. Function: Mediational analyses designed to test for SOR causal paths. 3. Mediation Defined: “the effects of stimuli on behavior are mediated by various transformations internal to the organism.” 4. Utility: Mediators directly explain why events occur (but can also provide clues to how and when they occur). 5. Character: Mediators are latent variables, or latent constructs.

31. Attributes of Mediators 1. Changes in IV account for changes in mediator 2. Changes in mediator account for changes in DV. 3. When links between IV to Mediator, and between Mediator to DV are established, the link between IV and DV becomes non-significant, or becomes significantly decreased.

32. Mediational Model Mediator a b c DV IV When Mediation is present: r (a) is significant r (b) is significant r ( c ), which was significant before the mediator was included, is either not significant or is much weaker after mediator is included.

33. Self-Image Concerns a b c Positive Bias Race of Recipient Mediational Model and Feedback Studies

34. RELATION BETWEEN MODERATORS AND MEDIATORS Moderator to mediator: Knowing how external variables affect outcomes can imply the existence of mediators. Mediator to Moderator: Knowing why underlying mechanism affects outcomes can suggest ways of addressing, remedying, altering the outcome.

35. Why Do People Need Self Esteem? Converging Evidence that Self Esteem Provides an Anxiety-Buffering Function Greenberg, et al., 2000 Three studies were conducted to assess the proposition that self-esteem serves an anxiety-buffering function. In Study 1, it was hypothesized that raising self-esteem would reduce anxiety in response to vivid images of death. In support of this hypothesis, subjects who received positive personality feedback reported less anxiety in response to a video about death than did neutral feedback subjects. …. . X ____Moderator ____Mediator

36. Greenberg, et al. 2000 Scary Images + Self Esteem 0 Anxiety +++ Scary Images X Self Esteem

37. Anxiety as a Function of Threat Salience and Level of Self Esteem Greenberg, et al., 2000

38. Visceral Perception and Nonconscious Fear Conditioning Katkin, Wiens, & Öhman, 2001 Previous research shows that people conditioned to fear certain kinds of stimuli such as snakes or spiders are subsequently better able to detect hidden images of these stimuli compared to people who are not conditioned. The current research predicts that this heightened sensitivity is restricted to people who are good at detecting their own heartbeats (good heartbeat monitors). This prediction was confirmed; when good heartbeat monitors are excluded from analysis the effect of fear conditioning on stimuli sensitivity disappears. [ABSTRACT MODIFIED ] X ____Moderator ____Mediator

39. Katkin, Wiens, & Öhman, 2001 Heartbeat Monitors a b c Stimuli Sensitivity Conditioned Fear

40. Ultimate Mediation? The Epistemological Challenge of Science  Multiple underlying causes: Disclosure --> Emotional resolution --> less stress --> immune boost --> health Race of recipient --> egalitarian concerns --> self-image concerns --> bias Ultimate underlying causes: Disclosure ---> coping (Pennebaker, 1989) Disclosure --> [????] --> coping Disclosure --> self-affirmation --> coping (Cresswell, et al., 2007) Disclosure --> self-affirmation --> [????] --> coping

43. Path Analyses and Causal Models • Attend. in 21st Century program  improved performance by minority students. • 21st Century program based on theory of stereotype-threat. When threat is high, minority students do less well. • Stereotype threat is itself a problem because it causes minority students to disidentify with academics. What is the causal model? What would be strong and weak correlational links in this model?

44. First Semester Grades as Predicted by Stereotype Threat, Identification with School, and Participation in 21st Century Program ID with School Stereo. Threat 21st Cent. Prog. Grades Task: What are IVs, DVs? What are moderators (if any)? What mediators (if any)? Put these in correct path Estimate relations between variables, outcome

45. 21st Century Program, Stereotype Threat, and Identification with School