Drugs

1. Drugs

2. Objectives You will understand: How to apply deductive reasoning to a series of analytical data. The limitations of presumptive (screening) tests. The relationship between the electromagnetic spectrum and spectroscopic analysis. The dangers of using prescription drugs, controlled substances, over-the-counter medications, and illegal drugs.

3. Objectives, continued You will be able to: Chemically identify illicit drug types. Classify the types of illicit drugs and their negative effects. Discuss the federal penalties for possession and use of controlled substances. Explain the need for confirmatory tests.

4. Objectives, continued You will be able to: Describe IR, UV-VIS spectroscopy, and GC-MS. Present and interpret data with graphs. Use the Physicians’ Desk Reference (PDR) to identify pills. Use technology and mathematics to improve investigations and communications.

5. A drug is a natural or synthetic substance designed to affect the subject psychologically or physiologically. A poison is a drug that shows toxic effects. “Controlled substances” are drugs that are restricted by law. The Controlled Substances Act is a law that was enacted in 1970; it lists illegal drugs, their categories, and penalties for possession, sale, or use. Drugs and Crime

6. Why do we care? The Office of National Drug Control Policy estimates that illegal drug use costs society $110 billion a year. Drug-related violence and crime also pose a grave and much more direct threat to the United States. According to the 1999 Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Program, 75% of the male adults arrested in NYC for committing a violent crime tested positive for drug use. The report also showed that even in smaller cities, these figures ranged as high as 65%. The drug epidemic is also taking a toll on the very core of American society -- the family. Drug use causes violence and abuse within families: One-quarter to one-half of all incidents of domestic violence are drug related. A survey of state child-welfare agencies found substance abuse to be one of the key problems exhibited by 81% of the families reported for child neglect and abuse. Additionally, 3.2% of pregnant women -- nearly 80,000 mothers -- use drugs regularly, which will affect their babies.

7. Schedule I—high potential for abuse; no currently accepted medical use in the U.S.; a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision Examples: heroin (diacetylmorphine), LSD, marijuana, ecstasy (MDMA) Controlled Substances Act Schedule II—high potential for abuse; a currently accepted medical use with severe restrictions; abuse may lead to severe psychological or physical dependence Examples: cocaine, morphine, amphetamines (including methamphetamines), PCP, Ritalin

8. Schedule III—lower potential for abuse than the drugs in I or II; a currently accepted medical use in the U.S.; abuse may lead to moderate physical dependence or high psychological dependence Examples: intermediate-acting barbiturates, anabolic steroids, ketamine Controlled Substances Act, continued Schedule IV—low potential for abuse relative to drugs in III; a currently accepted medical use in the U.S.; abuse may lead to limited physical or psychological dependence relative to drugs in III Examples: stimulants and depressants including Valium, Xanax, Librium, phenobarbital, Darvon

9. Schedule V—low potential for abuse relative to drugs in IV; currently accepted medical use in the U.S.; abuse may lead to limited physical or psychological dependence relative to drugs in IV Examples: codeine found in low doses in cough medicines Controlled Substances Act, continued

10. An illegal drug is a drug that is against the law to have, use, or distribute. An illicit drug is a legal drug used in an inappropriate or illegal way. Illegal or Illicit? Cocaine Crack

11. Hallucinogens—induces changes in normal thought processes, perceptions, and moods (marijuana, LSD, PCP, MDMA/ecstasy, Ketamine) Stimulants—speeds up the CNS (speed, cocaine, club drugs, anabolic steroids); includes caffeine and nicotine Narcotics—a drug that induces sleep and depresses vital body functions such as blood pressure, pulse rate, and breathing rate (morphine, heroin, methadone, codeine); analgesics, affect CNS to relieve pain (aspirin, acetaminophen, ibuprofen) Depressants—slows the CNS (alcohol, barbiturates, Valium), often prescribed to reduce anxiety or as a sleep aid; huffing propellants and solvents Classification of Illicit Drugs

12. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company PDR—Physicians’ Desk Reference Field Tests—presumptive tests Laboratory Tests—conclusive tests Identification of Drugs

13. PDR—A Physicians’ Desk Reference is used to identify manufactured pills, tablets, and capsules. It is updated each year. This can sometimes be a quick and easy identifier of the legally made drugs that may be found at a scene. The reference book gives a picture of the drug and states whether it is prescription, over-the-counter, or a controlled substance; it gives more detailed information about the drug as well. Physicians’ Desk Reference

14. Blood Urine Hair Gastric contents Bile Liver tissue Brain tissue Kidney tissue Spleen tissue Vitreous humor of the eye Human Components Used for Drug Analysis

15. 1. Screening or presumptive tests(used to reduce the number of possible identities of an unknown substance) Spot or color tests Microcrystalline test— a reagent is added that produces a crystalline precipitate which is unique for a certain drug. Chromatography 2. Confirmatory tests (test that specifically identifies a substance) Spectrophotometry Ultraviolet (UV) Visible Infrared (IR) Mass spectrometry Qualitative determine what is in a mixture Quantitative determine the % combination of components in the mixture Forensic Drug Analysis and IdentificationForensic Chemist must have a plan of action

16. Screening or presumptive tests only tell that the drug is possibly present. Confirmatory tests tell that the drug is positively present. (Screening tests are easier, cheaper, and quicker to use.) Drug Identification, continued

17. Marquis—turns purple in the presence of most opium derivatives and orange-brown with amphetamines Dille-Koppanyi—turns violet-blue in the presence of barbiturates Duquenois-Levine—turns a purple color in the presence of marijuana Van Urk—turns a blue-purple in the presence of LSD Scott test—color test for cocaine; blue Presumptive Color Tests

18. Presumptive Color Tests

19. A technique for separating mixtures into their components Includes two phases—a mobile one that flows past a stationary one The mixture interacts with the stationary phase and separates Chromatography

20. Paper Thin-layer (TLC) Gas (GC) Pyrolysis gas (PGC) Liquid (LC) High-performance liquid (HPLC) Column Types of Chromatography

21. Paper Chromatography Stationary phase—paper Mobile phase—a liquid solvent Capillary action moves the mobile phase through the stationary phase.

22. Retention Factor (Rf) This is a number that represents how far a compound travels in a particular solvent. It is determined by measuring the distance the compound traveled and dividing it by the distance the solvent traveled. If the Rf value for an unknown compound is close to or the same as that for the known compound, the two compounds are likely similar or identical (a match).

23. Thin Layer Chromatography • Stationary phase— a thin layer of coating (usually alumina or silica) on a sheet of plastic or glass • Mobile phase— a liquid solvent Click on Chapter 5 Drugs, and go to Web Extras Watch animated depictions of Thin-Layer Chromatography and Gas Chromatography at www.prenhall.com/hsforensics

24. Phases Stationary—a solid or a viscous liquid that lines a tube or column Mobile—an inert gas like nitrogen or helium Analysis Shows a peak that is proportional to the quantity of the substance present Uses retention time instead of Rffor the qualitative analysis Gas Chromatography

25. Not considered a confirmation of a controlled substance Used as a separation tool for mass spectroscopy (MS) and infrared spectroscopy (IR) Used to quantitatively measure the concentration of a sample. (In a courtroom, there is no real requirement to know the concentration of a substance. It does not affect guilt or innocence.) Uses of Gas Chromatography

26. Confirmatory Tests: Spectroscopy Spectroscopy—the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter Spectrophotometer—an instrument used to measure and record the absorption spectrum of a chemical substance

27. Components A radiation source A frequency selector A sample holder A detector to convert electromagnetic radiation into an electrical signal A recorder to produce a record of the signal Types Ultraviolet Visible Infrared Spectrophotometry

28. Infrared Spectrometry • Material absorbs energy in the near-IR region of the electromagnetic spectrum. • Compares the IR light beam before and after passing through a transparent sample. • Result—an absorption or transmittance spectrum • Gives a unique view of the substance; like a fingerprint • See how a spectrophotometer works www.prenhall.com/hsforensics

29. Mass Spectrometry Gas chromatography has one major drawback: It does not give a specific identification. Mass spectrometry cannot separate mixtures. By combining the two (GC-MS), constituents of mixtures can be specifically identified. Watch the GC/MS at work www.prenhall.com/hsforensics

30. In a mass spectrometer, an electron beam is directed at sample molecules in a vacuum chamber. The electrons break apart the sample molecules into many positive-charged fragments. These are sorted and collected according to their mass-to-charge ratio by an oscillating electric or magnetic field. Mass Spectrometry, continued

31. Mass Spectra Each molecular species has its own unique mass spectrum.

32. Both work well in identifying pure substances. Mixtures are difficult to identify in both techniques. Both are compared to a catalog of knowns. IR Spectrophotometry and Mass Spectrometry

33. People of Historical Significance Arthur Jeffrey Dempster was born in Canada, but studied at and received his PhD from the University of Chicago. He began teaching physics there in 1916. In 1918, Dempster developed the first modern mass spectrometer. His version was over 100 times more accurate than previous ones and established the basic theory and design of mass spectrometers that is still used to this day.

34. People of Historical Significance, continued Francis William Aston was a British physicist who won the 1922 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in the invention of the mass spectrograph. He used a method of electromagnetic focusing to separate substances. This enabled him to identify no fewer than 212 of the 287 naturally occurring elemental isotopes.

35. Forensic toxicology helps determine (a) the cause-and-effect relationships between exposure to a drug or other substance and (b) the toxic or lethal effects from that exposure. People can be exposed to toxic substances: intentionally—by treating illness or relieving pain accidentally—by harmful combinations or overdoses deliberately—by harming or killing others or by committing suicide

36. Less than ½ of 1% of all homicides results from poisoning. Accidental drug overdoses are more common. More than 50% of the federal prison population and about 20% of the population in state prisons consist of drug offenders. Poison—Murder, Accidental Overdoses, and Drug Offenses

37. The effect and intensity of response to these drugs varies from person to person. Often derived from plants, hallucinogens affect the user’s perceptions, thinking, self-awareness, and emotions. Affects of an overdose include an increased heart rate, often increased blood pressure, and sometimes panic attacks, anxiety, or psychosis. Controlled SubstancesHallucinogens

38. Narcotics reduce pain and can be very habit forming. Controlled SubstancesNarcotics

39. Stimulants increase feelings of energy and alertness while suppressing appetite. As the drug wears off, however, depression often results. Affects of an overdose can include high blood pressure, agitation, confusion, or seizures. Stimulants tend to be highly addictive. Controlled SubstancesStimulants

40. These drugs are produced in a laboratory and have a chemical structure similar to testosterone. Anabolic steroids promote cell and tissue growth increasing bone mass and body muscle. Because of this they are popular with weightlifters, bodybuilders, and other athletes. What are some of the negative side effects that are possible? Controlled SubstancesAnabolic Steroids

41. Depressants act on the central nervous system and increase the activity of a neurotransmitter called GABA. Increased GABA production results in drowsiness and slowed brain activity. These drugs, consequently, relieve anxiety and produce sleep. Mixing depressants with alcohol and other drugs increases their effects and health risks, possibly leading to coma and death. Controlled SubstancesDepressants

42. In what way are alcohols toxic? How is grain alcohol produced? What are the classic symptoms of a hangover? What is the effect of alcohol on the central nervous system? What can chronic abuse of alcohol cause? Controlled SubstancesAlcohols

43. Tetanus Lockjaw, as it is sometimes called, is produced by the Clostridium tetani bacteria. Its poison can cause violent muscle spasms. Botulism Produced by the bacteria Clostridium botulinum, botulism paralyzes muscles. It causes irreversible damage to nerve endings. Very small amounts are extremely deadly. Botulism is the most poisonous biological substance. Controlled SubstancesBacterial Toxins

44. Pesticides mostly are used to protect plants or food crops. Metal compounds are very poisonous. Controlled SubstancesPesticides and Heavy Metals

45. Metal compounds can damage many organs in the body. Controlled SubstancesPesticides and Heavy Metals

46. Ricin is a poisonous protein in the castor bean. is lethal in extremely small amounts. can enter the body in various ways: inhaled as a mist or a powder. ingested as food or drink. injected into the body. can cause death within a few hours. Controlled SubstancesBioterrorism Agents

47. Anthrax is caused by the bacteria Bacillus anthracis, which forms spores. can be spread to humans from infected animals. can enter the human body through: inhalation; causing breathing problems that usually result in death. ingestion; becoming fatal in 25% to 60% of cases. absorption via the skin; leading to death in about 20% of untreated cases. Controlled SubstancesBioterrorism Agents

48. Forensic toxicology seeks to identify poisons or drugs in criminals and victims. Toxicology is important in studying cases of drug overdose and sporting violations. Controlled substances fall into five main groups. Poisons can be produced by living organisms. Pesticides and heavy metals are common poisons. Bioterrorism agents include ricin and anthrax. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary