OCR Examinations A Level Physical Education A 7875 Module 2565 : Option B2 part 1

1. OCR Examinations A Level Physical Education A 7875 Module 2565 : Option B2 part 1 Psychology of Sport Performance

2. 27 - MOTIVES AND MOTIVATORS 28 - INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION 29 - EXTRINSIC REWARDS AND INTRINSIC SOURCES 30 - MAJOR MOTIVES 31 - THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION DISADVANTAGES / EXPLANATIONS / APPLICATION 32 - DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATION 33 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - NACH / NAF 34 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - PERSONALITY COMPONENTS 35 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL FACTORS 36 - AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM 37 - INVERTED U THEORY - OPTIMUM AROUSAL 38 - CATASTROPHE THEORY 39 - GROUPS 40 - STEINER’S MODEL 41 - SOCIAL LOAFING, INTERACTION AND COHESION 42 - COHESION - CARRON’s CONCEPTUAL MODEL 43 - LEADERSHIP - NATURE / NURTURE 44 - FACTORS AFFECTING LEADER EFFECTIVENESS 45 - LEADERSHIP STYLE - FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY CHELLADURAI CONTINUUM 46 - SITUATIONAL FACTORS - TASK / PERSON CENTRED 47 - MEMBER’S CHARACTERISTICS 48 - CHELLADURAI’S MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL 49 - CHELLADURAI’S FIVE TYPES OF LEADER BEHAVIOUR 50 - MENTAL PREPARATION FOR SPORT PERFORMANCE 51 - GOAL SETTING - GOAL STRUCTURE 52 - SMARTER GOALS (NCF) Index 3 - PERSONALITY 4 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY- TRAIT - CATTELL - EYSENCK 5 - EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY TRAIT DIMENSIONS 6 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - SOCIAL LEARNING BANDURA / VICARIOUS CONDITIONING 7 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST - LEWIN 8 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - TYPE A / TYPE B 9 - STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY - MARTENS 10 - PERSONALITY STRUCTURE - HOLLANDER PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE / TYPICAL RESPONSES 11 - EYSENCK AND CATTELL’S HIERARCHICAL MODEL 12 - SHELDON’S SOMATOPERSONALITY TYPOLOGY SOMATOTYPE / PERSONALITY TYPE 13 - MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY INTERVIEWS / QUESTIONNAIRES / OBSERVATION 14 - THE STRUCTURE OF CATTELL’S 16PF QUESTIONNAIRE 15 - PROFILE OF MOOD STATES (POMS) MOODS / ICEBERG PROFILE 16 - THE SELF-CONCEPT - SELF-ESTEEM 17 - STRUCTURE OF SELF-CONCEPT 18 - FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE SELF-CONCEPT OBJECTIVE SOURCES / SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTIONS 19 - THE SELF-CONCEPT WHEEL 20 - ATTITUDES IN SPORT 21 - FORMATION OF ATTITUDES 22 - COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADIC MODEL COGNITIVE / AFFECTIVE / BEHAVIOURAL 23 - PREJUDICE AND SPORT STEREOTYPES NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES 24 - POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TO SPORT 25 - ATTITUDE CHANGE BY PERSUASION AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE - PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION 26 - MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES OBSERVATION / PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTS / QUESTIONNAIRES INDEX

3. Personality PERSONALITY PERSONALITY • unique characteristics of an individual • knowledge about personality is important to ensure optimum sporting performance

4. TRAIT THEORIES general(covering all situations) underlying(inside of and part of the person) enduring (long lasting) predisposition(an inclination or motive formed earlier) CATTELL - EYSENCK’s hierarchical organisation of personality Personality THEORIES OF PERSONALITY- TRAIT

5. WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONS A - B - C - D? Personality EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY TRAIT DIMENSIONS A • stable extrovert • talkative, outgoing, easy going, carefree, showing leader qualities B • neurotic extrovert • restless, aggressive, excitable, changeable C • neurotic introvert • anxious, sober, rigid, pessimistic D • stable introvert • careful, thoughtful, controlled, reliable, even tempered

6. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY explains behaviour in terms of the reaction to specific situations we learn to deal with situations by observing others or by observing the results of our own behaviour on others and by modelling our own behaviour on what we have seen athletes learn behaviour by watching others BANDURA behaviour is determined by the situation social comparison behaving the same way as the peer group social approval or disapproval determines our responses behaviour is reinforced or penalised VICARIOUS CONDITIONING the learning of emotional responses through observational learning example : learning to become angry after a valid referee decision has gone against him / her by watching other players do the same Personality THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - SOCIAL LEARNING SOCIALISATION • sport has a socialising effect • participation in sport establishes norms and values of our society

7. INTERACTIONIST THEORIES traits determine behaviour but can be modified by situations traits situations behaviour LEWIN behaviour is a function of both the person (personality P) and the environment (E) B = f(P,E) Personality THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST

8. TYPE A characterised by: impatience works at a rapid pace higher levels of stress easily aroused strong desire to succeed anxiety in stressful situations lacking in tolerance has a need to be in control makes decisions quickly without much preparation or thought TYPE B characterised by : relaxed and patient allow time for tasks to be completed tolerance of others’ mistakes delegates easily low personal stress calm and unflappable in most situations less competitive prepared to wait and assess all options when decisions need to be made Personality THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

9. Personality STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY - MARTENS

10. PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE beliefs and values that remain more or lesspermanent example : a sportsman’s belief that fair play underlies his attitude on the field of play TYPICAL RESPONSES the way in which an individual responds in certainsituations example : stopping fighting at the bell Personality PERSONALITY STRUCTURE - HOLLANDER ROLE RELATED BEHAVIOUR • in other situations we may behavedifferently • example : striking after the bell when annoyed or frustrated SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT • how the behaviour andexpectations of othersaffect our role • example : a player argues with the referee because others have done so and got away with it before

11. Personality EYSENCK AND CATTELL’S HIERARCHICAL MODEL

12. SOMATOTYPE ectomorphy linearity endomorphy plumpness mesomorphy muscularity PERSONALITY TYPE cerebrotonia tenseness introversion viscerotonia sociability affection comfort-loving somatotonia risk taking adventure seeking extroversion Personality SHELDON’S SOMATOPERSONALITY TYPOLOGY

13. INTERVIEWS before or after the event not directly related to performance open ended and flexible transient feelings or attitudes may be expressed difficult to quantify accurately may be influenced by the interviewer Personality MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRES • before or after the event • not directly related to performance • rigidly and systematically set out • transient feelings or attitudes may be expressed • able to quantify accurately • would not be influenced by another • can be used to assess specific traits OBSERVATION • made during an actual event • directly related to performance • varies according to the competitive nature of the event • difficult to quantify accurately • may be influenced by the observer’s views and attitudes

14. Personality THE STRUCTURE OF CATTELL’S 16PF QUESTIONNAIRE

15. MOODS are an important aspect of personality which may influence sports performance tension depression anger vigour fatigue confusion unsuccessful sportspeople show high tension depression fatigue confusion low vigour Personality PROFILE OF MOOD STATES (POMS) • elite sportspeopleshowlow • tension • depression • confusion • high • vigour

16. The SELF-CONCEPT is the descriptive picture we have of ourselves including : physical attributes attitudes abilities roles emotions representing how we see ourselves which may not reflect reality or the way others see us SELF-ESTEEM the extent to which we value ourselves this may or may not match up to the expectations of others example : player may take pride in an ability to tackle hard the referee may see this as unnecessary aggression Personality THE SELF-CONCEPT

17. Personality STRUCTURE OF SELF-CONCEPT

18. OBJECTIVE SOURCES photos records results mirrors SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTIONS reaction of others comparison with others identification with models Personality FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE SELF-CONCEPT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXPERIENCES AND SELF-CONCEPT

19. Personality THE SELF-CONCEPT WHEEL

20. ATTITUDES a combination of beliefs and feelings about : objects people situations (called attitude objects) this predisposes us to behave in a certain way towards them learned or organised through experience evaluative they lead us to think and behave positively or negatively about an attitude object tend to be deep seated and enduring but can change or be changed Attitudes ATTITUDES IN SPORT

21. Attitudes FORMATION OF ATTITUDES

22. Attitudes COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADIC MODEL

23. NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES women in strength, endurance and contact sports participation of the disabled in physical activity older age groups interest and ability at sport participation of particular ethnicgroups in specific sports or positions within teams examples : the black quarterback in American Football the black sprinter the white skier / swimmer Attitudes PREJUDICE AND SPORT STEREOTYPES PREJUDICE • a prejudgement of a person, group, or situation • usually based on inadequate information • or inaccurate or biased information • which reinforces stereotypes • example : • women are often excluded from male dominated sports clubs or events

24. POSITIVE ATTITUDES has a positive physicalself-concept satisfactionfrom participation in sport believe sportpromotes health success at sport willing to trynew activities encouragedby significant others participatesregularly opportunity to participate Attitudes NEGATIVE ATTITUDES had negative experiencesat sport havelifestylewhich makes regular sport difficult find sport frustrating lackencouragement unlikelyto participate in sport have anegative self concept find sportboring POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TO SPORT

25. PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION theperson must pay attention understand accept retain the message being given thecoachmust be expert be trustworthy themessagemust be clear be unambiguous be balanced between emotion and logic be balanced between pros and cons COGNITIVE DISSONANCE thepersonmust be consistent between cognitive affective behavioural components the person must beconsistent between different elements cognitive dissonanceoccurs hence attitudes must change if two factual elements of attitude conflict example : the smoker who knows that smoking is bad for health Attitudes ATTITUDE CHANGE BY PERSUASION AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

26. BY OBSERVATION related toactual eventsas they are happening difficult to quantifyor measure open to interpretationby observer USING PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTS indicatorssuch as blood pressure skin conductivity brain activity (ECG) can be interpreted to indicate telling thetruth about an attitude object measurable independentof observer but takes along timeto set up requiring special apparatus QUESTIONNAIRES only as good as the questions asked measurable using Thurstone scale Likert scale Osgood’s Semantic Differential Scale Attitudes MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES

27. MOTIVATORS the reasons why sportspeople think and behave as they do THEORIES Motivation MOTIVES AND MOTIVATORS

28. EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION Motivation INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

29. EXTRINSIC REWARDS INTRINSIC SOURCES Motivation EXTRINSIC REWARDS AND INTRINSIC SOURCES

30. FOR YOUTH SPORT PARTICIPATION fun being with friends thrills excitement success developing fitness improving skills being good at it FOR ADULT SPORT PARTICIPATION health factors weight loss fitness self-challenge feeling better Motivation MAJOR MOTIVES

31. DISADVANTAGES adding extrinsic reward to a situation which already provided intrinsic motivation decreases the intrinsic motivation eventually replacing it so when rewards are no longer available interest in the situation (sports activity) reduces EXPLANATIONS the reward acts as a distraction to the sports person’s intrinsic desire to work at his / her own pace rewards may turn play into work relationships with the person giving rewards might change the nature of the activity changes people like to determine their own behaviour rewards may make them feel that someone else is in charge APPLICATION OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION to attract youngsters to an activity to revive flagging motivation to help a sportsperson over a bad period in training to provide information about levels of achievement and competence Motivation THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

32. MOTIVATION IS A COMBINATION OF personal characteristics situational aspects MOTIVATION IS HIGHEST WHEN the performer is keen to participate the performer is keen to learn the performer is keen to perform the performer is keen to perform effectively when the motivational climate is right when the training programme is interesting and varied MOTIVATION IS REDUCED BY routine competitionbetween motives PEOPLE have multiple motives share motives have unique motivational profiles need variation in training and competition need variation in intensity and competitiveness need structured coaching and teaching environments MOTIVES CHANGE OVER TIME TEACHERS AND COACHES ARE IMPORTANT MOTIVATORS Motivation DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATION

33. ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION the drive to achieve success for its own sake related to competitiveness persistence striving for perfection influenced by personality factors need to achieve need to avoid failure situational factors probability of success incentive value of success NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH) Tendency to approach success (Ts) this personality type likes a challenge likes feedback is not afraid of failure has high task persistence NEED TO AVOID FAILURE (NAF) Tendency to avoid failure (Taf) this personality type avoids challenges does not take risks often gives up does not want feedback Motivation ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

34. A = someone with a high need to achieve will probably have a low need to avoid failure will choose difficult or demanding tasks which are more risky the hard route up a rock face Motivation ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - PERSONALITY COMPONENTS B = • someone with a high need to avoid failure • will probably have a low need to achieve • will choose tasks which are less risky and more easily achieved • the easy route up the rock face

35. A = probability of success low (competing against the world champion) therefore strive very hard to win (incentive high) (will be highly chuffed if win) Motivation ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL FACTORS B = • probability of success high • (competing in local club match) • therefore don’t need to try as hard to win • (incentive low) • (and expect to win easily) • (not so pleasing)

36. AROUSAL this is the level of inner drives which forces the sportsperson to strive to achieve it needs to be under control and at the right level depending on the task RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM RAS is a system within the brain which causes arousal extroverts have lower levels of intrinsic arousal than introverts hence extroverts seek situations of high arousal introverts seek low arousal situations DRIVE THEORY the higher the arousal level the higher the achievement / performance level the more likely that a well learned skill (adominant response) will be produced Motivation AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY

37. INVERTED U THEORY there is anoptimum arousallevel if aroused more than this performance will decline OPTIMUM AROUSAL DEPENDS ON type of activity gross skills (weight lifting) requirehigh arousal fine skills (snooker) requirelow arousal skill level of the performer the more skilful the performer thehigherthe optimum arousal could be personality of the performer the moreextrovertthe performer thehigherthe arousal likely foroptimumperformance whereas introverts would optimise performance at lower arousal levels Motivation INVERTED U THEORY

38. CATASTROPHE THEORY here performance increases as arousal increases but ifarousalgetstoo high a complete loss of performanceoccurs (the catastrophe) Motivation CATASTROPHE THEORY • example : the golfer who tries too hard and completely misses the fairway from his drive at the 18th hole when in a winning position • example : the gymnast who completely messes up her previously well executed routine in a national final • anxiety affects arousal

39. A GROUP IS two or more people interacting with one another so that each person influences and is influenced by the others has a collective identity and a sense of shared purpose a social aggregate involving mutual awareness and potential interaction with structured patterns of communication examples : crowd at a soccer match soccer team parents watching their children swim Groups and Teams GROUPS

40. team success = potential for success - coordination and motivation problems actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty processes POTENTIAL FOR SUCCESS usually skilful individuals make the best team usually individual success (of team members) correlates with overall team success COORDINATION PROBLEMS (for players) occur if there is a high level of interaction between them if one player is being selfish or aggressive if a defence is not working together hence overall team performance suffers MOTIVATION PROBLEMS people seem to work less hardin a group than they do on their own example : in rowing, times of winning double sculls are often only slightly faster than single sculls this is social loafing ‘the Ringlemann Effect’ MOTIVATIONAL LOSSES individuals may not share the same motives, this leads to loss of group cohesion example : some players may play a game for social reasons, others in order to win Groups and Teams STEINER’S MODEL

41. SOCIAL LOAFING individuals reduce their effort when in a group and can hide their lack of effort amongst the effort of other group members can be eliminated if the contribution of an individual can be identified as with player statistics (American Football, Rugby League, Cricket, Basketball) the need for interaction between players varies between sports cooperation between players can be significant COHESION selection of less skilled but more cooperative players the extent to which members of a group exhibit a desire to achieve common goals and group identity friendship groups can have negative effects cohesion has both task and social elements TASK COHESION people who are willing to work together whether or not they get on personally have the potential to be successful SOCIAL COHESION teams with high social cohesion but low task cohesion are less successful Groups and Teams SOCIAL LOAFING, INTERACTION AND COHESION

42. CARRON’s CONCEPTUAL MODEL four factors affect the development of cohesion Groups and Teams COHESION ENVIRONMENTAL • factors binding members to a team • contracts, location, age, eligibility • avoid star system, provide opportunities for socialising PERSONAL • factors which members believe are important • motives for taking part • give opportunities for motives to be realised • develop ownership feelings and social groupings within the team LEADERSHIP • the behaviour of leaders and coaches • coaches should use all leadership behaviours to influence different individuals TEAM • factors relating to the group • team identity, targets, member ability and role • creation of team short and long-term goals • rewarding of individual and team efforts

43. A LEADER can influence the behaviour of others towards required goals will influence effective team cohesion will help fulfil expectations of a team develops an environment in which a group is motivated rewarded and helped towards its common goals emergent leaderscome from within a group because of their skill and abilities or through nomination / election prescribed leaders are appointed by a governing body or agency outside the group LEADERSHIP the ‘great man’ theory NATURE leaders are born not made leaders have relevant innate personality qualities social learning theory NURTURE leaders learn their skills through watching and imitating models leaders are formedthroughout life by social or environmental influences observation of a model high status of a model imitation or copying of behaviour Leadership LEADERSHIP

44. LEADER CHARACTERISTICS THE SITUATION MEMBER’S CHARACTERISTICS LEADERSHIP QUALITIES communication respect for group members enthusiasm high ability deep knowledge charisma Leadership FACTORS AFFECTING LEADER EFFECTIVENESS

45. FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY there is a continuum between : task-centred leadership best for most favourable or least favourable situations person (or relationship) centred leadership best for moderately favourable situations favourableness depends on whether relationships are warm if the task has a clear structure if the leader is powerful pressure of time CHELLADURAI CONTINUUM between : autocratic authoritarian leader who makes all the decisions democratic leader who shares the decisions (with members of group or team) seeks advice is prepared to change his / her mind based on advice laissez faire leader who lets others make decisions each type can be effective depending on the situation Leadership LEADERSHIP STYLE

46. SITUATIONAL FAVOURABLENESS if things are going well for the team or things are going badly (poor facilities, no support) then a leader needs to beTASK-ORIENTED if things are going moderately well then a leader needs to bePERSON-CENTRED TEAM SPORTS leader should be directive and organises and structures group tasks INDIVIDUAL SPORTS look for a person oriented leader SIZE OF GROUP affects leadership style the more members in a group the less likely individual needs will be taken into account DECISION NEEDS TO BE MADE QUICKLY autocratic style of leader TRADITION members resent change Leadership SITUATIONAL FACTORS

47. A GOOD LEADERwill adapt to expectations knowledge experience of group members if group is hostile leader adopts autocratic style if group is friendly leader adopts more democratic person-centred style problems arise if strategies for preparation used by leader do not match group expectations Leadership MEMBER’S CHARACTERISTICS

48. Leadership CHELLADURAI’S MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL

49. TRAINING AND INSTRUCTION behaviour aimed at improving performance strong on technical and tactical aspects DEMOCRATIC APPROACH allows decisions to be made collectively AUTOCRATIC APPROACH personal authority least preferred if coach does not show he / she is aware of athlete’s needs and preferences SOCIAL SUPPORT concern shown for well-being of others preferred by youngsters REWARDS leader uses positive reinforcement Leadership CHELLADURAI’S FIVE TYPES OF LEADER BEHAVIOUR

50. Mental Preparation for Sport Performance MENTAL PREPARATION FOR SPORT PERFORMANCE