Economic growth is

1. Economic growth is Often measured by the rate of change of real GDP although this has many deficiencies it omits output that is not bought/sold e.g. leisure, pollution, congestion it also neglects income distribution so higher GDP per capita does not necessarily mean greater happiness but it helps.

2. The production function... shows the maximum output that can be produced using specified quantities of inputs, given existing technical knowledge Output = f(capital, labour, land, raw materials, technology) This is to be read as: output is a function of capital, labour, etc.

3. Increasing output Capital output per worker may increase with capital per worker Labour population growth participation rates human capital Land fixed supply, but quality may be improved

4. Raw materials important distinction between depletable resources (coal, oil) renewable resources (timber, fish) Technical knowledge inventions, R&D Economies of scale may reinforce the long-run growth process Increasing output (2)

5. Technical knowledge The state of technical knowledge changes through time because of: inventions embodiment of knowledge in capital learning by doing Research and development (R&D) patent systems address a market failure which otherwise would lead to there being too little R&D.

6. The convergence hypothesis … asserts that poor countries will grow more quickly than average, but rich countries will grow more slowly than average. i.e. poor countries should ‘catch up’ but social and political differences may enable some economies to catch up more effectively than others.

7. Endogenous growth theory … recognises that there may be significant externalities to capital Higher capital in one firm increases productivity in other firms. known as ‘endogenous’ growth theory because it suggests that growth may depend on parameters that can be influenced by private behaviour or public policy governments should subsidise human and physical capital formation

8. The costs of economic growth Malthus, in the 18th century, warned of limits to growth but he underestimated the potential impact of technical change The price system helps to ensure a proper use of finite resources Growth may bring costs pollution, congestion, poor quality of life But lack of growth may impose costs also The assessment of the desirable growth rate remains a normative issue

9. Zero growth? The zero-growth proposal argues that, because higher measured GNP imposes environmental costs, it is best to aim for zero growth of measured GNP. This fails to distinguish between measured outputs accompanied by social costs and measured outputs without additional social costs. It does not provide the correct incentives. when there is too much pollution, congestion, environmental damage or stress, the best solution is to provide incentives that directly reduce these phenomena.