Computer Security Authentication

1. Computer SecurityAuthentication

2. Entity Authentication EntityAuthentication is the process of verifying a claimed identity It is based on: • something the entity knows • something the entity holds • something the entity is • something the entity does • where the entity is

3. Something the entity knows The user has to know some secret, such as a password or a personal identification number (PIN). Threats Anybody who knows your secret “is you”!

4. Something the entity holds The user has to present a physical token (such as key, an identity tag, a card) to be authenticated. Threats The token can be lost or stolen!

5. Something the entity is Use biometrics, such as fingerprints, palm prints, iris patterns, or retina patterns. With biometrics a stored pattern is compared to an actual taken measurement. Problems False positives (accepting the wrong entity) and false negatives! Many users find biometrics unacceptable. Gruesome threats of the kind used in some Hollywood thrillers!

6. Something the entity does People perform some mechanical tasks in a way that is both repeatable and specific to the individual. Examples • hand written signatures • on a writing pad • the writing speed/pressure of a hand written signature • on the keyboard • the typing speed and intervals between strokes Problems False positives (accepting the wrong entity) and false negatives!

7. Where the entity is The system may take into account the location of the login. For example, access may only be granted from certain terminals. With mobile and distributed computing the precise geographical location can be established during authentication by using the services of a global positioning system (GPS).

8. Usernames & Passwords The most common authentication mechanism. Although password protection seems to offer relatively good security, human practice degrades its quality. A password is information associated with an entity that confirms the entity’s identity Typically a sequence of characters

9. Usernames & Passwords Let • Abe a set of authentication information, used by entities to prove their identity • Ca set of complementary information, stored by the system used to validate the authentication information • F : A Ca set of complementary functions • L : A  C {true, false}, the set of authentication information • Sa set of selection functions that enable entities to create or alter authentication and complementary information

10. Example, Unix passwords crypt(3) for Unix systems The original UNIX password mechanism does not store passwords online in clear. Instead one of 4,096 functions hashes the password into an 11-character string, and two characters are used to identify the function. • A is the set of strings up to eight characters (the null character and some others are disallowed). • Passwords are chosen from a set of at most 127 possible characters and A contains approximately 6.91016passwords • C contains strings of exactly 13 characters, so roughly 31023strings

11. Example, Unix passwords • The UNIX hashing functions f F are based on a permutation of DES: • F consists of 4,096 such functions. • The UNIX authentication functions l L are login, suand other such programs that confirm a user’s password during execution. • The selection functions s S are programs such as passwd and nispasswd, which change the password associated with an entity

12. Cryptographic protection The one-way hash functions fF crypt(3) for Unix systems This uses a slightly modified version of the encryption scheme DES with 25 “rounds” (instead of the 16 rounds) This encrypts the all zero block using the password x as a key. The encryption f(x) of the zero block is the hash value.

13. Attacks on passwords Although password protection seems to offer relatively good security, human practice degrades its quality. Attacks on passwords • Exhaustive search • Try many probable passwords • Try likely passwords for the user • Search for the system list of passwords. • Ask the user!

14. Exhaustive search attacks If passwords are words consisting of the 26 characters A-Z and have length 8, then we are altogether 268 passwords. This is roughly 2*1011, which seems enough intractable. It would take of the order of about 6 years to test all passwords at the rate of 1 millisecond per password. If we were to speed up the search to one microsecond per password, this would come down to approximately 2 days.

15. Probable passwords People prefer simple passwords. Our earlier analysis assumes that people choose passwords such as “vxlagrst”. Whereas in reality they tend to use names and words they can remember. Spelling checkers carry dictionaries of the most common English words. The typical size of such a dictionary is 80,000 words. This reduces the search to seconds

16. Passwords likely for a user People prefer words which are related to them, such as the name of a spouse, a child, a relative, a pet, a street name or something memorable or familiar. Some people pick a simple password and replace certain characters such as 0 (zero) by O, 1 for letter L, 3 for letter E, etc

17. Passwords defenses • Password checkers: check password against a dictionary of weak passwords. • Password generators: users are not allowed to pick their own passwords. • Password ageing: an expiry date is set for passwords. • Limit login attacks. • Inform user after a successful login of the last login and the number of failed logins since then.

18. Spoofing attacks An entity enters a password and the system verifies the entities identity. Does the user know who has received the password? Defenses • Display number of failed attempts • Use trusted paths (with Windows NT, CTRL+ALT+DEL invokes the OS login screen) • Mutual authentication: the system could be required to identify itself

19. Protecting the password file To validate passwords the system compares the password entered against a value stored in the password file. Defenses • cryptographic protection (e.g. use a one-way hash function f: instead of listing passwords x, list their values f(x) –beware of dictionary attacks!) • access control enforced by the OS (e.g. restrict access to files and other resources to users holding the appropriate privileges) • combine both

20. Cryptographic protection Use one-way hash function f Instead of storing the passwordx in the password list, the hash is stored. The password list is organized as a two column table of user IDs (usernames) and the corresponding hashed values When the user logs in and enters the password x is it is hashed (locally) into f(x). This value is then compared with the stored value.

21. Cryptographic protection Access control mechanisms in the OS These restrict access to files and other resources to users holding the appropriate privileges. Only privileged users can have write access to the password file: otherwise an attacker could access data of other users by changing their password file. If read access is restricted to privileged users then passwords should be secure, in theory. In practice an attacker can still use a dictionary attack.

22. Cryptographic protection Access control mechanisms in the OS Dictionary attacks can be prevented by using password salting. With salting, additional information (the salt) is appended to the password x before it is hashed to get f(x). This implies that even if two users have the same password their salted hashes will be different.

23. Multiple passwords For additional password protection several passwords may used. For example, use • the first password for workstation • the second password to get onto the network • the third password to access the server • the fourth to access the database management system • etc

24. Passwords –Single sign-on Remembering many passwords is rather inconvenient. A single sign-on service solves this problem. You enter your password once, the system stores it, and then uses it whenever you have to authenticate yourself again. However this raises new security concerns. How do you protect the stored password? (the password needs to be in cleartext)

25. Biometrics • Fingerprints -- scan optically -- use capacitive technique (measure differences in electrical charges to detect those parts touching a chip and those raised). Data is converted into a graph with vertices the ridges; adjacent ridges are connected.

26. Biometrics • Voices • Eyes • Faces • Keystrokes • Combinations Problem: false positives/negatives