Chapter Five Allusion (p.239)

1. Chapter Five Allusion (p.239) An allusion is a figure of speech that makes a reference to, or representation of, a place, event, literary work, myth, or work of art, either directly or by implication. M.H. Abrams defined allusion as "a brief reference, explicit or indirect, to a person, place or event, or to another literary work or passage". It is left to the reader or hearer to make the connection; An allusion, like an annotative word or a symbol, is a means of suggesting far more than it says. Allusion is an effective device for economy. It is often employed to reinforce the emotion or the ideas of one’s own work with the emotion or ideas of another work. It is, therefore, a useful device to add persuasiveness and forcefulness to our writing and speaking.

2. Allusion may range from the universal to the obscure and momentary. What is necessary is that they be recognized by the reader or audience. The chief source of English allusions may come from: ① nursery rhymes, fair tales, legends, Greek mythology, Aesop’s fables, Bible stories; ② the works of great writers like Shakespeare, Dickens, Hardy, T.S. Eliot, Melville, Sinclair Lewis and Faulkner etc. ;③ modern and contemporary sources. Thus, the more one knows of the culture-- of history, of art, of science, of philosophy, of great men and women, of great books and poems and plays—the more one will derive from current reading and listening.

3. A. Fairy Tales, and English legends • Sleeping beauty:睡美人refers to anything that lies dormant until “reactivated” by some action • The Pied Piper of Hamelin:汉默尔恩的彩衣吹笛人 refers to anyone or anything that has great luring power • Goldilocks and the Three Bears:金凤花和三只小熊Goldilocks now stands for anything that is “just right” for any situation. • Until recently, financial markets appeared to be betting that the Goldilocks economy—neither too hot, nor too cold—was safe from the bears. The rattled markets are a reminder that sooner or later growth will slow or inflation will rise. (一直以来，金融机构似乎都笃信于经济既没过热或过冷，远离熊市，直到市场最近的恐慌才再一次提醒了人们，经济的增长迟早会减速，通胀迟早会出现.)

4. 4. Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves:阿里巴巴和四十大盗The password “ Open Sesame” to the treasure cave now implies the key to any hidden knowledge or treasure. 5. Tales of a Thousand and One Night: Tales of Sinbad the Sailor, the Fisherman and the Genie, etc., are included in this book. 6. Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp: 阿拉丁与神灯Aladdin’s lamp能满足一切愿望的法宝 7. Beauty and the Beast: 美女与野兽a beautiful person matched with someone ugly; another theme: the Beast is kind at heart--- appearances are deceptive. 8. Blue Beard:蓝胡子someone who marries and then murders his wives; a person who murders his wives for money.

5. 9. Cinderella: 灰姑娘a rags-to-rich theme Try to be the Cinderella in your life . 10. Red Riding Hood: 小红帽a naïve girl who is deceived by cunning Wolf 11. The Emperor’s New Clothes: the emperor’s officials praised his new clothes, though he wore nothing; a satire on hypocrisy and dishonesty of officials. 12. The little Mermaid:小美人鱼a beautiful creature who sacrificed everything for a love she could never attain 13. The Three Little Pigs:三只小猪two pigs were naïve; only the third pig could defeat the cunning wolf 14. The Ugly Duckling:丑小鸭 the ugly duckling grows into a beautiful swan; (a plain unpromising child may grow up into) a beautiful, handsome person

6. 15. King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table: • 16. Robin Hood of Sherwood Forest: • B. Geek mythology • Achilles’ heel: a weak and vulnerable spot • Adonis: 阿多尼斯 beautiful youth • Apollo: sun-god, god of music, poetry; handsome male • Atlas: 阿特拉斯 a rebellious Titan, condemned by Zeus to hold the heavens up on his shoulders; a person or thing with sole responsibility for holding the status quo(现状）, or growth, development of something

7. 5. Sisyphus: condemned to roll a huge rock to top of a hill, and then to repeat the task as it rolled down again; a Sisyphean task is a harsh, endless and futile (useless) task 6. Augean stables:肮脏的地方;藏垢纳秽之所;积弊 any difficult and unpleasant task Although they know it is not easy to reform the Augean stables of this society, they are still trying to do it. 7. Cassandra:卡桑德拉(希腊神话Troy 王Priam之女, 能预知祸事) 不为人相信的凶事预言者 anyone whose forewarnings of disaster or ill-fortune are often ignored 8. Circe:女巫瑟丝a dangerously seductive (sexy) woman ( Circe lured and turned men into swine) 9. Damon and Pythias:一对生死之交的朋友two loyal friends, who are willing to die for each other

8. 10. Draconian:严厉的, 严酷的 extremely severe , harsh Its best bet will be to order the temporary closure of polluting industries across a wide swathe of northern China in the run-up to the games, as well as introducingdraconian traffic-control measures in Beijing.11. dragon’s teeth: “ to sow dragon’s teeth” an action to subdue that causes trouble Wherever he went，he sowed (the) dragon’s teeth by preaching racial segregation . (他无论去到哪里，都鼓吹种族隔离政策，挑起纠纷) 12. Hercules: a man of great strength 13. Herculean: of great difficulty; anything that is hard and difficult to carry out

9. 14. Midas touch:有发财的运气或技能;手气好the golden touch Mr. Wang has the Midas touch: everything he does turns to gold. 15. Oedipus: Oedipus complex恋母情结(俄狄浦斯) He' always buying his mother expensive gifts, and I'm beginning to wonder if he's got an Oedipus complex . 16. Pandora’s box: a source of countless troubles, once opened 17. Trojan horse: an enemy from within; sabotage from with 18. An Apple of Discord 不和果 金苹果 An Apple of Discord 争斗之源；不和之因；祸根 

11. Review

12. A General Understanding of Rhetoric • What is rhetoric?( Definitions of rhetoric) • What’s the purpose of rhetoric? • What is discussed in rhetoric? • The Importance of Learning English Rhetoric • Brief History of Western Rhetoric

13. ● the art or science of communication in words; this art or science practiced or taught as a formal discipline, esp. the doctrine formulated by Aristotle and taught throughout the Middle ages; overornate or ostentatious language. (Longman Modern English Dictionary) ● the study of how effective writing achieves its goals. The term “rhetoric” in this sense is common in North American college and university courses in rhetoric or “rhetorical communication”, which typically focus on how to express oneself correctly and effectively in relation to the topic of writing or speech, the audience, and the purpose of communication. (Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics)

14. The Purpose of Rhetoric • The prevailing view about the purpose of rhetoric is to express oneself well and to communicate effectively in order to secure a desired result by employing rhetorical means efficiently. • “to enlighten the understanding , to please the imagination, to move the passion ,or to influence the will.”“促进理解、引起想象、调动感情、或者说影响人们的意志” (18世纪苏格兰修辞学家George Campbell)

15. Object of Studying Rhetoric • An idea, in any language, can be expressed in various ways. And the various expressions, in fact have different functions and can be used in different situations. So the object of studying rhetoric is to make a choice in these different expressions. In other words, the object of it is the choice of synonymous expressions, which is actually known as rhetorical operation. It is also the switch (choice) of linguistic codes.

16. 3. What is discussed in rhetoric(contents of rhetoric) • Some linguists hold that a language, as a large system, usually consists of at least 3 subsystem: semiotics, semantics, pragmatics and rhetoric. Generally, beginners lay stress on semiotics, while intermediates and advanced learners lay stress on pragmatics and rhetoric. • Rhetoric is composed of theoretical rhetoric and practical rhetoric. Theoretical rhetoric deals with the theoretical problem of rhetoric, while practical rhetoric helps us improve our ability to use the English language effectively.

17. Rhetoric is also classified , by some linguists, as communicative rhetoric and aesthetic rhetoric. The former is also called passive rhetoric in China, which deals with the choice of words, the choice of sentences and the arrangement of paragraphs; the latter is termed as active rhetoric, dealing with figures of speech. Broadly speaking, rhetoric covers all the elements of oral and written things, including structure, diction. Rhythm, tone, style, and anything related to the effective use of language.

18. The Highest Principle s of Rhetoric • Since the choice of synonymous expressions must adapt to a specific communicative situation, some rhetoricians deem that the highest principle of rhetoric is to adapt to specific situation, that is, “adaptability” or “appropriateness”.

19. The Three Levels of Rhetorical Operations A : words and phrasesB: sentence varietyC : arranging paragraphs into a complete text 修辞活动是一个系统的思维过程，包括择句、选句、组段到谋篇的整个系列 The 3 aesthetic criteria: logos, pathos and ethos (artistic proofs)—逻辑/情感/人格

20. Classification and Use of Different Sentences Sentences may be classified according to Grammar or Rhetoric as to meaning and as to form: Grammatical Classification of Sentences I. As to meaning: II. As to Form: 1. Declarative Sentence 1. Simple Sentence 2. Interrogative Sentence 2. Compound Sentence（并列） 3. Imperative Sentence 3. Complex Sentence （复合） 4. Exclamatory Sentence 4. Compound –Complex Sentence Rhetorical Classification of Sentences III. As to Arrangement 1. Periodic Sentence （圆周句） 2. Loose Sentence 3. Balanced Sentence

21. Generally, an effective sentence must possess five essential qualities: correctness, clearness, unity, coherence and emphasis.(正确、清楚、统一、连贯、强调） Short sentences, on the whole, are characterized by their brevity, quick tempo and force. The short sentence is relatively simple in form, clear in grammatical relation, and terse and forceful in style. They are usually emphatic, and suitable for the presentation of points, conclusions, or important facts. Long sentence is relatively complex in form, fully expressive in capacity, and often used in formal style to show one’s complicated mentality or various kinds of relationship of different things. Legal documents, official documents and scientific papers contain a much larger proportion of long sentences than other categories of writing

22. A Simple sentence has only one clause to make a statement, and so it is good for directness and clearness. Whenever a statement of some weighty truth, or emphatic assertion, or important definition is desired, simple sentence should be used. Sometimes a sequence of simple sentences is used to describe rapid movement or feeling of excitement. In oral English they are used more often to indicate the informal and casual atmosphere. Simple sentences, if overused, can also make your writing sound childish. The Compound Sentence consists of two or more independent clauses which are of equal status, that is, the clauses are paratactic (parallel; coordinate) in relationship. It is also called a multiple sentence.

23. The complex sentence makes clear the logical relationship between events or ideas through subordination. Subordinate clauses are named according to their functions. • Loose Sentencedoes not denote any looseness or lack of strict logical sequence in grammatical structure. Rather it denotes a loose or relaxed, untense ordering of thought, for once the main idea is stated, the rest of the sentence can go on, on its own momentum (impetus动力), as it were, for as long as necessary. • The periodic sentence, with its tight structure, is compact and coherent, and can be used for solemnity or dignity; with its delayed statement, is good for promoting suspense; when a loose sentence is turned to a periodic sentence, the last part of it has been stressed.

24. The Active and Passive Voiced Sentence The active voice identifies the doer of an action as well as states the action directly, thus making the writing more concise and vigorous; it requires fewer words and thus makes the writing for “quicker” tempo（速度、节奏). Passive voice may reinforce coherence in a successive expression with the same doer as its subject; balance a sentence when its doer s subject has a long modifier or an additional element; may be chosen to gain the proper emphasis. Inverted Sentences: the inversion is not a factor of correctness, but effectiveness of that sentence. Function of emphasis, vividness, balance, close connection and compactness and rhyming verse

25. Principles for selecting words and phrases 1. choose the words that will convey your meaning as  exactly as possible. 2.try to use the smallest number of words necessary to say  what you want to say. 3.  avoid cliches and abstract expression. 4.  in order to make your writing not only readable but also in teresting and attractive, you should write in a vivid way. 5.take into account the subject matter, the reader and the  purpose of your writing, and see that your wording is a harmony with these factors. This is what we may call  “appropriateness” or “propriety”.

26. Four types of vocabulary 1. Reading vocabulary contain common words but many more big words recognize them by their context do not use all of them in speaking and writing 2. Listening vocabulary contain many common words contain some technical words understand them when you hear do not use all of them in speaking and writing 3.Writing vocabulary contain simple and common words Technical words 4.Speaking vocabulary can be simple or sophisticated depending on the audience and the subject to be talked about a flexible vocabulary

27. Meanings of Words To fully understand why a writer chooses this word instead of another, we should also have a basic knowledge of word meaning that comes under the scope of semantics. Lexical meaning is composed of conceptual meaning and associative meaning. Lexical meaning is relatively stable.

28. Types of Vocabulary English vocabulary contains tens of thousands words, of which a few thousand are most frequently used. These words may be regarded as the core of the language. The core of English is made up of three layers of words: the learned, the common and the colloquial. For example,offspring, children and kids. According to different ways, vocabulary can also be classified into the following pairs: short words and long words; common words or learned words; formal, informal or colloquial words; general or specific words; concrete or abstract words; referential or emotive words(意义词或情感词）.

29. Principles of Word-choice • Since we express our thoughts with certain definite object in view, the words we choose must be clear so others can easily understand, they must also be accurate so the meaning we intend may not be miscarried, and finally they must be effective so they may arouse proper response in the reader. Hence in choosing words according to nature we have to consider: • 1. words for clearness • 2. words for accuracy • 3. words for effectiveness

30. Figures of Speech Figure of speech is an “Ancient term for any form of expression in which the normal use of language is manipulated, stressed, or altered for rhetorical effect” (P.H. Matthews). It is usually “ a word or phrase which is used for special effect, and which does not have its usual or literal meaning” (Jack C. Richards). Or it means something other than what is says. It is an effective device and attractive method.

31. Figures of speech are devices to make our language figurative; they lend force to an idea, heighten effect of expression, or create suggestive imagery, as compared with ordinary or literal ways of expression. A figure of speech arises when the mind associates one thing with another--- that is somewhat similar in one or more respects, or related in common experience , or opposite in one or more respects, or emphatic in sense. There are many kinds of figure of speech and they can be divided into many groups, such as :figures of similarity, figures of relationship, figures of opposition, figures of emphasis, figures of sound and so on.

32. 英语修辞格 Figures of speech大体分为三类：     音韵修辞格(phonological rhetorical devices )  词义修辞格(semantic rhetorical devices) 句法修辞格(syntactical rhetorical devices) 音韵修辞格(phonological rhetorical devices) 是利用词语的语音特点创造出来的修辞手法。它主要包括onomatopoeia, alliteration, homeoteleuton(谐缀格）, assonance and consonance. 词义修辞格(semantic rhetorical devices) 词义修辞格主要借助语义的联想和语言的变化等特点创造出来的修辞手法。它们主要包括 simile, metaphor, allusion, metonymy, transferred epithet, personifi-cation, hyperbole, irony, euphemism, pun, oxymoron, zeugma, contrast 等。

33. 句法修辞格(syntactical rhetorical devices) 句子结构上的修辞格主要是指通过句子结构的均衡布局或是突出重点创造出来的修辞手法。这类辞格主要包括repetition, rhetorical question, antithesis, apostrophe 等。它们与汉语中的反复、设问、对偶、倒装基本相同 。