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History of Psychology

History of Psychology. Chapter 12 :Gestalt Psychology. 1. The Whole is Different From the Sum of Its Parts. A. The Gestalt revolution 1. in Germany 2. a protest against Wundtian psychology B. Criticisms of Wundt’s approach 1. against elementism

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History of Psychology

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  1. History of Psychology Chapter 12 :Gestalt Psychology

  2. 1. The Whole is Different From the Sum of Its Parts • A. The Gestalt revolution • 1. in Germany • 2. a protest against Wundtian psychology • B. Criticisms of Wundt’s approach • 1. against elementism • 2. against the notion that perception of objects is a summation of elements

  3. The Whole is Different From the Sum of Its Parts 3. However, the whole is different from the sum of its parts • C. Unlike behaviorism, Gestalt accepts the value of consciousness

  4. A. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) The elements are organized meaningfully not through the mechanical process of association B. Franz Brentano (1838-1917) Psychology should study the act of experiencing. He considered Wundt’s introspection is artificial II. Antecedent Influences onGestalt Psychology

  5. C. Ernst Mach (1838-1917) 1. a physicist 2. discussed spatial and temporal patterns a. considered them to be sensations b. independent of their elements Antecedent Influences onGestalt Psychology

  6. D. von Ehrenfels (1859-1932) 1. Qualities of experience can not be explained as combination of elementary sensations 2. Perceptions based on something greater than a merging of individual sensations 3. Wertheimer considered von Ehrenfels' work the crucial antecedent Antecedent Influences onGestalt Psychology

  7. E. William James 1. regarded elements of consciousness as artificial abstractions F. Phenomenology 1.an unbiased description of immediate experience as it occurs, not analyzed or reduced to elements 2. involves naïve experience Antecedent Influences onGestalt Psychology

  8. Antecedent Influences onGestalt Psychology • G. G. E. Müller’s lab at U. of Göttingen • 1. 1909-1915: a group of phenomenological psychologists worked at U. of Göttingen. • 2. anticipated to form the Gestalt school

  9. III. The Changing Zeitgeist in Physics • A. Physicists beginning to think in terms of fields and organic wholes • B. Gestalt psychology • 1. Köhler: background in physics and studies with Max Planck • 2. an application of field physics to psychology

  10. A. Background 1. studied Law U. of Prague, then philosophy 2. attended lectures by von Ehrenfels 3. studied philosophy & psychology U. of Berlin 4. 1904: Ph.D. U. of Würzburg with Külpe IV. Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)

  11. Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) • B. 1921: co-founded the journal Psychological Research(official publications of the Gestalt psychology school of thoughts) • C. 1933: fled Germany to the New School of Social Research in New York • D. Maslow’s concept of self-actualization based on Wertheimer

  12. A. Background 1. interest in science and philosophy 2. 1909: Ph.D. from U. of Berlin with Stumpf 3. 1910: began association with Wertheimer and Köhler V. Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) Kurt Koffka (left) Wolfgang Kohler (right)

  13. Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) • B. 1921: The Growth of the Mind • C. 1922: "Perception: An Introduction to Gestalt-Theorie" • 1. described the basic concepts and results of considerable research • 2. term "perception" misunderstood as the most narrow focus on a single process

  14. Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) • 3. has a broad concern • a. problems of thinking and learning • b. ultimately: all aspects of conscious experience • D. 1927: to Smith College • E. 1935: Principles of Gestalt Psychology

  15. A. Background 1. trained in physics with Max Planck 2. convinced that a. Gestalten occur in psychology as in physics b. psychology must become allied with physics 3. 1909: Ph.D. from U. of Berlin with Stumpf VI. Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) Kurt Koffka (left) Wolfgang Kohler (right)

  16. Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) • B. Career • 1. 1917: The Mentality of Apes • Study the behavior of chimpanzees • 2. 1922: succeeded Stumpf as professor of psychology at Berlin • 3. 1929: Gestalt Psychology

  17. Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) • 4. 1935: left Germany to US and taught at Swarthmore College in Penn state • 5. was the spokesman for Gestalt movement

  18. VII.The Nature of the Gestalt Revolution • A. In Germany: heretical and a rebellion directly against Wundt • B. Research • 1. perceptual constancies • Definition: A quality of wholeness or completeness in perceptual experience that does not vary even when the sensory elements changes.

  19. VII.The Nature of the Gestalt Revolution • 2. there exists a wholeness not found in any of the parts • 3. the character of the actual perception differs from the character of the sensory stimulation • 4. attempts at analysisdestroy the perception

  20. The Nature of the Gestalt Revolution • C. Köhler: Two meanings of "Gestalt" • 1. shape or form as a property of objects • 2. a whole or concrete entity that has as one attributes a specific shape or form • 3. The term is not restricted to visual or sensory fields

  21. VIII.Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization • A. principles • 1. Proximity: a • 2. Continuity: a • 3. Similarity: b • 4. Closure: c • 5. Simplicity: c • 6. figure/ground: d B. Organizing principles don’t depend on higher mental processes or past experiences

  22. IX. Gestalt Studies of Learning: Insight and the Mentality of Apes • A. Intelligence of chimpanzees---- demonstrated in ability to solve problems

  23. IX. Gestalt Studies of Learning: Insight and the Mentality of Apes • B. Köhler’s interpretation of results • 1. in terms of perceive the situation as a whole • 2. in terms of understanding relationships among the various stimuli • 3. Called “insight” • Immediate apprehension or understanding of relationships

  24. Gestalt Studies of Learning: Insight and the Mentality of Apes • C. Solutions require • 1. restructuring of the perceptual field • 2. perception of a new relationship between the stimuli

  25. X. The Spread of Gestalt Psychology • A. 1920s • 1. a coherent and dominant school in Germany • 2. American students such as Tolman and Allport • 3. Koffka and Köhler: many lectures in the U.S. • B. 1933 Nazi government: shift of Gestalt psychology to U.S.

  26. The Spread of Gestalt Psychology • C. Slow acceptance in the U.S. • 1. behaviorism was at its peak • 2. a language barrier • 3. belief that Gestalt psychology dealt solely withperception • 4. Wertheimer, Köhler, and Koffka at small colleges without graduate programs • 5. Gestalt focus of protest (Wundt) no longer of concern in U.S.

  27. A. Lewin’s life 1. studied mathematics and physics at German universities 2. 1914: Ph.D. at U. of Berlin with Stumpf XI. Field Theory: Kurt Lewin(1890-1947)

  28. Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) • B. Field theory • 1. Definition: using the concept of fields of force to explain behavior in terms of one’s field of social influence • 2. the trend in late 19th-century science • 3. extended beyond the Gestalt framework

  29. Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) • C. The life space • the psychological field of the individual • a. encompasses all past, present, and future events that may affect one • b. each event may determine behavior in a given situation • c. degree of development is a function of amount and type of experience accumulated

  30. Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) • D. Motivation • 1. equilibrium • a. State of balance between the person and the environment • b. Any disturbance of this equilibrium produces tension • c. It leads to some action to relieve the tension and restore the balance • d. thus, motivation is a consequence of dis-equilibrium

  31. Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) • 2. the Zeigarnik effect • The tendency to recall uncompleted tasks more easily than completed tasks

  32. Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) • E. Social psychology • 1. group dynamics • The outstanding feature of Lewin’s social psychology is group dynamic • 2. authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire leadership styles among boys • Authoritarian---boys were more aggressive • Democratic---boys were more friendly • Spurred the growth of social psychology

  33. Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) • 3. emphasis on social action research • Racial problems, equal employment opportunities, or prevention of prejudice in childhood • 4. sensitivity training • Was forerunners of the encounter groups popular in the 1960s and 1970s.

  34. XII. Criticisms of Gestalt Psychology • 1. Gestalt position is vague • 2. basic concepts and termsnot defined with sufficient rigor • 3. too preoccupied with theory at the expense of research and empirical support • a. lacks adequate controls

  35. Criticisms of Gestalt Psychology • 4. the Gestalt experimental work is inferior to the behaviorist • 5. insight learning: not replicable • 6. poorly defined physiological assumptions

  36. XIII. Contributions of Gestalt Psychology • A. Retained its separate identity, not absorbed by the mainstream • B. Centered on phenomenology • C. influence the Americans humanistic psychology movement and contemporary cognitive psychology

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