Weathering and Soils

1. Weathering and Soils v 0044 of 'Weathering and Soils' by Greg Pouch at 2011-01-24 11:41:38 LastSavedBeforeThis 2011-01-24 11:37:59 C:\Users\GregAdmin\Documents\Geo101\04WeatheringAndSoils.ppt on 'GWPOUCHDELL1720'

2. Weathering and Soils 3 Weathering 4 Weathering > Mechanical Weathering 5 Weathering > Chemical 6 Weathering Products 7 Weathering > Rates 8 Differential Weathering 9 Soils 10 Why study soils 11 Vocabulary 12 Soil>Processes 13 Factors affecting soil formation 14 Soil Properties 15 Soil Classification 16 Soil Evolution 17 US Soils Fig. 5.18 18 Global Soil Regions USDA 19 Global Soil Regions FAO 20 Soils and History

3. Weatheringmechanical or chemical destruction of rocks at or near the surface • The surficial processes of weathering, erosion, transportation, and deposition work together to generate sediments and sedimentary rocks, as well as soils. • Mechanical Weathering isbreaking rocks into smaller rocks. • Chemical Weathering is corrosion of rocks. The near surface environment differs from deeper environments in the abundance of water and oxygen and the presence of CO2, which forms a weak acid when mixed with water. Most chemical weathering is due to dissolution, oxidation, or hydrolysis. • Erosion and Transportation are starting to move fragments (erosion) and moving rock fragments (transportation) and are closely related to mechanical weathering. When the transportation stops, we call that deposition

4. Weathering > Mechanical Weathering Mechanical Weathering isbreaking rocks into smaller rocks. • Water that gets into cracks then freezes can break up a rock (potholes in Chicago), as can growth of plant roots and formation of salt crystals through evaporation. • If you cool a rock, all the originally interlocking grains get smaller: this causes them to pull on each other, which results in fractures (joints) developing in the rock, and even within individual mineral grains. Similarly, if you un-load (decompress) a rock, it expands in the free direction (towards the surface) and can’t expand parallel to the surface, so you end up with sheeting due to pressure release. In addition to these planetary-scale causes, you also have daily temperature fluctuations and forest fires that can cause rocks to fracture. Burrowing animals can also fragment rocks • Rocks striking each other knock or scrape fragments off: this is abrasion. This is much more important after a fragment has been freed and is being transported. • Mechanical weathering of rocks increases the exposed surface area, which favors chemical weathering, and decreases the size of particles, which makes erosion and transportation easier.

5. Weathering > Chemical • Chemical Weathering is corrosion of rocks. The near surface environment differs from deeper environments in the abundance of water and oxygen and the presence of CO2, which forms a weak acid when mixed with water. Most chemical weathering is due to oxidation, dissolution, or hydrolysis. • Oxidation – Redox, Electron exchangeOften is the addition of oxygen • 4Fe+2 +O2→ 4Fe+3+2O-2 (Iron is oxidized, Oxygen is reduced) • 4FeSiO3 + O2→ 4SiO2 + 2Fe2O3 • Fe-pyroxene + oxygen → silica + hematite (rust ) • Dissolution: Ions go into solution from a solid • CaCO3 + H2O → Ca+2(aq) + HCO3-1(aq) + (OH)-1(aq) • Calcite +water → Ca+2ion + bicarbonate ion +hydroxyl ion N.B. Dissolving the calcite has “released” a hydroxyl, making the water more-basic/less-acidic. • **Precipitation: Opposite of dissolution, ions taken from a solution to form a solid. This in not a weathering but a depositional process. • CaCO3 + H2O ← Ca+2(aq) + HCO3-1(aq) +(OH)-1(aq) • Hydrolysis replacement of a cation (metal ion) with a hydrogen ion. Hydrogen ions are very small. They can replace the normal cations in mineral structures at the surface, which de-stabilizes the crystal lattice and enhances further reaction. • 2KAlSi3O4 + 2 (H+ HCO3-) +H2O → Al2Si2(OH)4 + 2K+ + 2HCO3- +4Si02 • K-Spar + (CO2 dissolved in water) +water → Kaolinite clay + soluble ions +qtz (aq or s)

6. Smaller fragments of rock (due to mechanical weathering) • Altered rocks due to chemical weathering. Different minerals. aq_ means aqueous s solution, or solid.* indicates very slow or tropics-only Weathering Products • Bowen’s reaction series Minerals at the bottom of the series are the most stable under weathering, the ones at the top are least stable. • In order of increasing stability calc,dol<ol<pyr/amph/biot<plag<musc,kspar<qtz<clay<goethite<diaspore

7. Weathering > Rates • Weathering rates are influenced by • Heat, • water, • acids, • ice, • temperature changes, • rock • Most chemical reactions happen at the surface of particles, so fine-grained materials corrode faster. • Being chemical reactions, all chemical weathering proceeds faster at higher temperatures. • Reactions that involve water and/or CO2 occur more rapidly in more humid (vegetation-lush) conditions. • In climates that have little or sporadic rainfall and little vegetation (deserts), mechanical weathering dominates and you get angular topography (Western movies) with minimal soil development but soils that contain lots of mineral nutrients. • In climates with abundant rainfall and vegetation and temperatures (rainforests), chemical weathering dominates and you get very rounded topography and thick soils with little mineral nutrients. (Most nutrients are in biomass cycles).

8. Differential Weathering It is rare for two different rock types to weather at the same rate. Rocks that are fractured or made of reactive (unstable) minerals weather faster. Usually, differential erosion occurs and is the main way that rocks are mapped.

9. Soils

10. Why study soils • Plant nutrition • Erosion • Drainage • Heaving due to ice (rare this far south) or shrink-swell clay • Construction: settling of foundations • Useful information about recent geologic history From http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12249909 Report: Urgent action needed to avert global hunger (bad article but good map)

11. Vocabulary • Soil • Engineer: any loose material that can be moved using a backhoe, without blasting (includes what geologists call unconsolidated sediment) • Geologist: sediment that has plant roots • Soil Scientist: loose material, including mineral and organic matter, that supports plants • Horizon a distinct, horizontal zone in a soil, often marked by differences in mineral composition, texture, color, or structure • O organic. Composed mainly of decomposed organic matter (leaves and stems) • A Accumulation zone. Mainly mineral matter, with accumulated organic matter and mineral decomposition products of plants, such as K, Ca, and Phosphate. Loses clays and iron/aluminum oxides/hydroxides. • E Eluviation zone (washed out zone). Clays and iron and aluminum oxides are washed out of this zone, and nothing else accumulates • B Accumulation zone Clays and iron/aluminum oxides accumulate here. • C Slightly altered parent material, if from unconsolidated sediments. • R Regolith (rotten rock) Altered rock, if from consolidated rocks.

12. Soil>Processes • Percolation of Water Soil is subjected to a continual flow of water, which is slightly acidic due to CO2 in atmosphere, but becomes more acidic due to high CO2 concentrations in soil along with organic acids from decomposition of plant material. • Weathering of minerals The same processes as occur in other surface environments, but slightly more acidic due to decomposition of plants • Solution Soluble ions either leave completely or accumulate in B horizon, depending on relative importance of rain and evaporation • Precipitation Certain minerals are insoluble enough to precipitate (phosphate, iron and aluminum oxides and hydroxides). Others may precipitate because of dry conditions in soil, or, in groundwater discharge zones, minerals precipitate from the water that comes in from below and evaporates. • Translocation (movement of colloids over short distances) Small, solid chunks of clays and iron and aluminum oxides and hydroxides can be moved in water, and deposited lower in the soil column at permeability barriers • Roots penetrate soil, increasing the permeability and porosity • Other organisms burrowing animals aerate the soil, bacteria decompose plant matter, can synthesize nitrate or release nitrate from plants • Decomposition of plants releases plants components back into the soil

13. Factors affecting soil formation • Parent Material • Rock • Eolian (wind-borne) material. Sand or silt (loess) • Fluvial sediments • Climate • Precipitation • Evaporation • Temperature • Vegetation or Organisms • Forest • Deep, thick roots, most of the biomass is above ground, soils with pronounced horizonation • Grassland • Roots relatively shallow, most of biomass is below ground, not as much horizonation, very soft soils due to extensive roots (and holes where roots used to be) • Topography • Drainage status • Slope • Time since exposure or deposition of material. Note that additional water or wind-borne material may be deposited on top of the soil.

14. Soil Properties • Texture (particle sizes) • Structure: organization into peds (lumps of soil) • Color (useful in soils) • Black rich in organic matter • Gray poor in organic matter and iron (hydr-) oxides Reducing = poorly drained • Brown, yellow, red iron Oxidizing • Porosity percentage of volume occupied by air or water • Permeability speed at which fluid flows through it in response to pressure gradient, high (fast) in coarse materials, low in fine materials) • Nutrient Availability Water, K, N, P, Ca, Mg, others • Engineering properties shrink-swell, bearing capacity, erodibility

15. Soil Classification • Old Scheme • Pedocal Calcium soil arid and semi-arid, caliche • Pedalfer Al Fe soil humid, no caliche • Laterites: tropical soils of iron and aluminum oxides • USDA Taxonomy (based on observable properties) • *Histosol (hist = tissue) O Thick O horizon, minimal mineral horizons near surface. • Aridisol arid soils • Verstisol Vertically mixed soils, due to shrink-swell clays • *Entisol (recent) Minimal development of horizons, weak A and O, no or minimal B • *Inceptisol (inception of soil development) Well developed A, weak B • *Spodosol (spod-= ash) much like an alfisol with a very pronounced E horizon. Often quartzose. • **Mollisol (moll- =soft) has mollic horizon (a thick, black, soft horizon as found under prairies) • **Alfisol (pedalfer soil) has an argillic (clay-rich) B horizon, and no mollic horizon • Ultisol ultimate weathering Like an alfisol, but more so. Soluble nutrients are low or gone. • Oxisol oxides only left (past ultisol) Also known as laterite. All soluble minerals, including quartz, are gone, leaving only iron and aluminum oxides ** very common in Illinois * common in Illinois

16. Soil Evolution Initially, a soil is parent material at the surface. It is subjected to the soil forming processes, changing the nature of the material.  • Organic matter accumulates, until a balance between deposition and decomposition is reached. • Weathering of minerals leads to • release of soluble nutrients (K, Ca, Mg), which may be carried away by water • formation of clays • Translocation of clays downward and accumulation at water table (where speed decreases) or where water is spread too thin to carry it onward Example of till under grassland • Glacial till is exposed, not really a soil • Plants start to grow and organic matter accumulates as a weak A horizon Entisol • More organic matter accumulation to form a definite A horizon; weathering of minerals and precipitation in soil causes a weak B horizon Inceptisol • Definite B horizon forms, much organic matter. Mollisol • Translocation of lots of clay from A horizon to B. Soluble minerals leached Alfisol • More translocation and leaching Ultisol • More translocation and leaching Oxisol

17. US Soils Fig. 5.18

18. Global Soil Regions USDA

19. Global Soil Regions FAO

20. Soils and History • Cultures are constrained by their ability to produce food (among other things), which is constrained by the soils and the plants. • Irrigation civilizations, levees, flood soils • Northern Europe was worthless until steel plow • Soils are able to supply mineral nutrients for one of several reasons • New material (glacial soils, volcanic soils, river floodplains) • Influx of new material from wind or floods • Influx or cycling of organic matter (rainforests) • Some soils are just not good • weathered too much (e.g., southern US, tropics) • little initial nutrients (e.g., sandy soils in Michigan)

21. Weathering and Soils • Weathering is the collection of processes that rocks undergo to adjust to near-surface conditions, and includes mechanical disintegration and chemical alterations. Most primary igneous minerals weather to clay, some to quartz or rust, and yield ions that go off in solution. Weathering rates depend on starting materials, temperature, and availability of water, oxygen, and acidity, and proceed much faster when hot, wet, and lushly-vegetated. • Soils form at the surface and the soil type depends on parent material, time, topography, climate, and organisms. Soils develop horizons, and these horizons along with other properties are used to classify soils. Most soils evolve from Entisols (raw parent material) towards a low-fertility Oxisol due to leaching of soluble nutrients.