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The Birth of Modernity?

The Birth of Modernity?. Part II: “Freedom of Conscience” in the European Reformations, c.1500-1700. Outline and Key Terms. The Early Reformations Europe in the “Confessional Age” Self-determination, toleration, and “modernity”. Definitions.

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The Birth of Modernity?

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  1. The Birth of Modernity? Part II: “Freedom of Conscience” in the European Reformations, c.1500-1700

  2. Outline and Key Terms • The Early Reformations • Europe in the “Confessional Age” • Self-determination, toleration, and “modernity”

  3. Definitions • reformare(lat.) – to transform, re-shape, restore • Why “the Reformation”? • Significance for “early modern” Europe? • Permanent division in western Christianity • Religious conflict and warfare • The growth of state power A “Luther Bible” (The Complete Holy Scripture in German), 1534

  4. Historiography • Max Weber (1864-1920) • Famous for his concept of the “Protestant ethic,” • Explaining the rapid economic and social advancement of northern Europe • Weber linked the Protestant ethos to the birth of “modern” society • Entzauberung(“disenchantment”) Above: Max Weber (1864-1920) Right: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905)

  5. Reformation Europe “Confession”: a religious creed or statement of faith

  6. Criticism of the Church • Problem: • The Church a bastion of power and wealth in the Renaissance centuries… • ….. by 1500, many people dissatisfied with the “worldliness” (i.e. corruption) of the Roman Church • Responses: • Widespread anti-clericalism • Protests and rebellions • Moving outside the Church (the DevotioModernamovement) • Criticizing the Church from within (Christian Humanists) The “Drummer of Niklashausen - visionary Hans Böhm preaching an uprising against monks and priests, 1476

  7. Ad fontes re-applied • “Christian Humanism” – A contradiction in terms? • The ad fontesmethod applied to Christian matters • Scripture • Canon Law (church law) • “Christian humanists”used Petrarch’s method to critique Church doctrine and tradition The Pope selling Indulgences, woodcut by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1521)

  8. Martin Luther (1483-1546) • Born in Eisleben, 1483 • Original Career goals? • Conversion Experience, 1505 • Monastic Life (1505-1520) • Pilgrimage to Rome, 1510 • Criticizes Roman Church leadership: • Ninety-Five Theses Against Indulgences (1517) • To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation (1520) • The Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1520) • The Freedom of A Christian (1520) • Teachings: • Sola Scriptura – The Bible as the only authority! • The “priesthood of all believers” • “Christian freedom” Luther as Augustinian Monk (engraving by Lucas Cranach, 1520)

  9. Break with the Church • Luther’s writings threaten Roman Church authority • Luther prosecuted • June 1519 – the “Leipzig Disputation” against Johannes Eck • 1520 - Pope Leo X threatens Luther with excommunication • 1521 – Luther judged at Diet of Worms, excommunicated and made an outlaw  • Luther claims that an individual Christian’s freedom of conscience permits him to disobey worldly authority!! Luther Before the Diet of Worms, by Anton Alexander von Werner (1843-1915)

  10. From Reform to “Reformation” • “Reformation” = reform movement becomes a political phenomenon • The implications of Luther’s movement • Many princes and Imperial Citiesadopt the Reformation…. • …but the Emperor and other princes remain loyal to the Roman Church!! Confessional Age Europe (1555-1648)

  11. The Reformation in England • Henry VIII (Tudor), King of England (r. 1509-47) • Succession problem (from 1525) • Known as Henry’s “Great Matter” • Solution – a papal annulment from Pope Clement VII (?) • Cardinal Thomas Wolsey sent to Pope Clement VII to annul Henry‘s marriage • Chief Minister Thomas Cromwell suggests that Henry take over as head of the Church in England ! • Henry issues the “Act of Supremacy” (November 1534) • Act of Parliament making the king the sole head of the church in England Above: Queen Catherine, by Lucas Hornebolte; Left above: Henry VIII, by Hans Holbein the Younger (1537) Left: Sir Thomas More, by Holbein (1473-1530)

  12. The Swiss Reformation “Turning Swiss” - Historian Thomas A. Brady on the Swiss model of reform. Debate in many south German Cities – Lutheran or Swiss reform model?

  13. The Reformed Tradition (“Calvinism”) • John Calvin (1509-1564) • Born Jean Cauvinin Picardie, France (1509) • Studied law at Paris and Orleans (1528-1534) • Calvin moves to Basel, Switzerland • Writes Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) • Moves to Geneva, 1541 - presents his model for religious reform to city council • Geneva becomes a “Protestant Rome” • Sin and heresy prosecuted by law • Geneva-trained pastors spread “Calvinism” in France and Germany!  John Calvin, by Hans Holbein

  14. The “Confessional Age” • When? The 16thand 17thcenturies Milestones: • The Edict of Worms (1521) • The Augsburg Confession (1530) • The Religious Peace of Augsburg (1555) • The Peace of Westphalia (1648) • What? A new era of competing religious creeds • The European “Wars of Religion” • German Peasants’ War (1524-26) • Schmalkaldic War in Germany (1546-47) • Wars of Religion in France (1562-98) • Dutch Eighty Years’ War (1568-1648) • The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) • Legacy for the early-modern state? Emperor Charles V at the Battle of Mühlberg, by Titian (1548)

  15. Religious War in Germany • The Reformation divides the Empire • The “Protestation” (Speyer, 1529) and “Augsburg Confession” (Augsburg, 1530) • Protestant princes form a defensive alliance at Schmalkalden, Feb 1531 • The “Schmalkaldic League” meets annually • “Schmalkaldic Articles” issued 1537 • The “Schmalkaldic War,” 1546-1547 • Catholic Emperor Charles V defeats the Lutheran princes! • Battle of Mühlberg (Saxony), 24 April 1547 Top Left: Philip II, Landgrave of Hesse (1534-37) Top Right: Johann Friedrich I, Elector of Saxony, by Lucas Cranach the Younger (1537) Above: Charles V, by Titian (1548)

  16. Toleration in Germany • German protestant princes make new alliance with Henry II of France! • Charles agrees to the Treaty of Passau (1552) • Guarantees toleration of German Lutheranism • The Religious Peace of Augsburg (1555) • Cuiusregio, eiusreligio • “Lutheranism” as defined by the Augsburg Confession officially becomes a legal religion (in the Holy Roman Empire) Title page of The Religious Peace of Augsburg (Mainz, 1555)

  17. War and Peace in France • Persecution of French Protestants • The Massacre of Vassy (1562) • The St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572) • The “Wars of Religion,” 1562-1598 • Nobility divided by religion • Civil war resolved by victories of Huguenot leader Henry of Navarre (Bourbon) • Converts to Catholicism, 1593 – “Paris is Worth A Mass” • Royal toleration for Huguenots – the Edict of Nantes (April, 1598) Top: Henry IV, King of France, by Frans Porbus (1610) Bottom: The Edict of Nantes (with royal seal)

  18. The St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre The Massacre of St. Bartholomew’s Day, by Francois Dubois (c. 1572-1584)

  19. The Dutch Revolt • 80 years of conflict! • 1565: Spanish King Philip II rejects religious toleration for the Spanish Netherlands • Dutch Protestants revolt • Philip’s response – send a Spanish army • 1567 - Duke of Alba invades Belgium • The “Spanish Fury” • Dutch resurgence - The “Dutch Republic” declared in 1581 • King Philip III and the “Twelve Years’ Truce” (signed April, 1609) • What can we conclude about the origins of religious toleration? Above: Dominions of Philip II in 1580 Left: William, Prince of Orange, by Adriaen Thomasz

  20. Reform and “modernity”? • Does the Reformation create a “modern” worldview? • Luther’s emphasis on individual salvation, right to freedom of conscience (self-determination) • Tudor reform (Henry VIII) – the state takes control of the church! • Zwingli and Calvin condemn “idolatry” and “superstition” • Wars of religion produce religious toleration • Does the Reformation create a “modern” society? • Growth of state power over the church • Multiple legal religions (after 1555): • What did “religious toleration” mean in the 1500s and 1600s? A “tolerant” society?

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