1. Computer Abstractions and Technology

1. 1. Computer Abstractions and Technology

2. 1. Computer Abstractions and Technology 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Below Your Program 1.3 Under the Covers 1.4 Real Stuff: Manufacturing Pentium 4 Chips 1.5 Fallacies and Pitfalls 1.6 Concluding Remarks 1.7 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 1.8 Exercises

3. 1.1 Introduction 3 Classes of Computing Applications (1/2) • Desktop computers • Personal computers • Good performance to a single user at low cost • Third-party software, also called shrink-wrap software • Servers • Modern form of mainframes, mini- and supercomputers • Usually accessed via a network • Expandability and dependability • From low-end servers to supercomputers Back to chapter overview

4. 3 Classes of Computing Applications (2/2) • Embedded computers • A computer inside another device used for running one predetermined application or collection of software • Minimum performance with stringent limitations on cost or power • Growth rate (Fig. 1.1) • Desktop and servers: 9%/year • Embedded computers: 40%/year Elaboration:Processor cores • 31% of embedded processors (1998) to 56% (2002) • With growth rate of 40% /year of embedded market, 63% growth per year

5. Number of Processors Sold Figure 1.1

6. Sales of Microprocessors Figure 1.2

7. 1.2 Below Your Program • C, Assembly, Binary Figure 1.4 Back to chapter overview

8. 1.3 Under the Covers • Five Classic Components Figure 1.5 Back to chapter overview

9. Anatomy of a Mouse • Brief history of pointing devices • 1967, research prototype by Engelbart • 1973, Alto with a mouse • By the 1990s, mouse in every desktop computer • Electromechanical mouse • A ball increase x and y counters. • Optical mouse • LED ∙∙∙ illuminating the surface • Black-and-white camera ∙∙∙ taking 1500 sample pictures/sec • Simple optical processor ∙∙∙ comparing the images to determine the movement of the mouse

10. Through the Looking Glass • CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) display • Refresh rate ∙∙∙ 30 to 75 times per second • LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) • LCD pixel is not the source of light. • Rod-shaped molecules • Active matrix LCD • Raster refresh buffer or frame buffer

11. Opening the Box • Inside the personal computer Figure 1.8

12. Pentium Processor Figure 1.9 in 2ed

13. Pentium 4 Processor Figure 1.9

14. Main Board with Pentium Pro

15. Close-up of PC Motherboard Figure 1.10

16. Abstractions • A model that renders lower-level details of computer systems temporarily invisible in order to facilitate design of sophisticated systems. • Instruction set architecture (=Architecture) • Interface between hardware and lower-level software • ... the attributes of a [computing] system as seen by the programmer, i.e. the conceptual structure and functional behavior, as distinct from the organization of the data flows and controls, the logic design, and the physical implementation. (Amdahl, Blaaw, and Brooks with the IBM 360, 1964)

17. What is Computer Architecture? • Concerned with only the highest level of the hierarchy • Specification at the lowest level is incredibly complex • Separate functionality from implementation • Concept of computer family • 1964, 6 models of IBM System/360 • Machines sharing same architecture • But having different implementations • Software investment of the client is preserved as new models are introduced

18. A Safe Place for Data • Main memory (=primary memory) • Volatile • Mainly DRAMs since 1975 • Magnetic disk • Dominating secondary memory since 1965 • Nonvolatile • Removable storage technologies • Optical disks • Magnetic tape • FLASH-based memory cards • Floppy drives and Zip drives

19. Optical Disks • Compact disk (CD) • Spiral track • Pit ∙∙∙ about 10-6 mof diameter • Digital video disk (DVD) • Multiple layers • Much smaller pits • Rewritable CD/DVD • Recording surface of crystalline, reflective material • Recording ∙∙∙ similar to that for a write-once CD/DVD • Erasure ∙∙∙ annealing process

20. Semiconductor Technologies Figure 1.12

21. Moore’s Law on DRAM Capacity • Gordon Moore of Intel • 2X every 18~24 months • 4X every 3 years • X16,000 for 20 years since 1977 Figure 1.13

22. Performance Increase of a Workstation Figure 1.17

23. 1.4 Real Stuff: Manufacturing Pentium 4 Chips Figure 1.14 Back to chapter overview

24. Issues in Manufacturing ICs • Performance: Major objective • Testability: More than half of total cost • Area: Directly related to the money • Power • Packaging: Wire-bonding, Molding • Surface mount technology • Through hole package

25. Intel Pentium 4 Processors Figure 1.15 8-inch wafer for Pentium 4 Figure 1.16 Pentium 4

26. 1.7 Historical Perspective and Further Reading The First Electronic Computers • ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) • The first operational electronic general-purpose computer • 18,800 vacuum tubes, 1,900 additions per second • By J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, Moore School of Electrical Engineering in the University of Pennsylvania • Funded by US Army • Differences from the earlier calculators • Conditional jumps • Programmable Back to chapter overview

27. Weaknesses of ENIAC • Small amount of storage - twenty 10-digit registers • Tedious programming - manual cable plugging and switch setting Figure 1.7.1

28. Other First Generation Computers (1/3) • EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) • A stored-program concept (cf) von Neumann computer • Eckert, Mauchly, Goldstine, and von Neumann • EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) • 1946, Maurice Wilkes of Cambridge University • The world's first full-scale, operational, stored-program computer (cf) The world's first operational, stored-program computer Mark I, University of Manchester

29. Other First Generation Computers (2/3) • IAS (Institute for Advanced Study) machine • At Princeton University • By von Neumann + Goldstine + Arthur Burks + Julian Bigelow • 1024 40-bit words and 10 times faster than ENIAC • Atanasoff-Berry's machine • Iowa State University, early 1940s • Special-purpose computer • Never completely operational

30. Other First Generation Computers (3/3) • Konrad Zuse's special-purpose machine • Germany, late 1930s to early 1940s • Harvard Mark-I • Electromechanical computer built by Howard Aiken • Mark-II, Mark-III and Mark-IV • Harvard architecture separate memories for instructions and data • Whirlwind project • MIT, 1947 • For the applications in real-time radar signal processing • Magnetic core memory • 2048 16-bit words memory

31. Commercial Developments • Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation • Formed in December 1947 • BINAC • The first machine built for Northrop, August 1949 • Acquired by Remington-Rand • UNIVAC I • June 1951, the first successful commercial computer • IBM • Punched card and office automation business • In 1950, starts building computers • IBM 701: the first IBM computer, shipped in 1952 • IBM System/360 • 1964, investing $5 billion, computer family of 6 models

32. PDP-8 • The first minicomputer • 1965, DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) • under $20,000

33. Intel 4004 • The first microprocessor • 1971, Intel • 23,000 transistors

34. Supercomputers • Control Data Corporation • 1963, CDC 6600 • The first supercomputer • Designed by Seymour Cray • Cray Research, Inc. • 1976, Cray-1 • 1996, Silicon Graphics

35. Personal Computers • Apple II • 1977, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak • IBM PC • 1981, Intel 80x86 and MS-DOS • MS-DOS • Sold 12 million copies in 1990 • Embedded computers • Increasingly popular • Example: MIPS chips 5,200,000 out of 5,500,000

36. Key Commercial Computers since 1950