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Empiricism, Sensationalism, and Positivism

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Empiricism, Sensationalism, and Positivism

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    1. Empiricism, Sensationalism, and Positivism Chapter 5

    2. -Zeitgeist: -Descarte's influence: mechanistic view of man, much to debate, innate ideas, mind/body dualism, Paved way for generation of philosophical thought. -Newton & Galileo: Science, an alternative way to know things, laws or principles, observation & experimentation, materialism: matter & motion -Education -continued emergence of universities, spread & sharing of ideas throughout Europe, increased rebellion against religious persecution (Colonies in America), academics speaking up against religious & government suppression, Satire in writings & art made fun of human convention -Religion: more freedom in countries such as England that broke from the Catholic Church-Zeitgeist: -Descarte's influence: mechanistic view of man, much to debate, innate ideas, mind/body dualism, Paved way for generation of philosophical thought. -Newton & Galileo: Science, an alternative way to know things, laws or principles, observation & experimentation, materialism: matter & motion -Education -continued emergence of universities, spread & sharing of ideas throughout Europe, increased rebellion against religious persecution (Colonies in America), academics speaking up against religious & government suppression, Satire in writings & art made fun of human convention -Religion: more freedom in countries such as England that broke from the Catholic Church

    4. British Empiricism Empiricism: The belief that all knowledge is derived from experience, especially sensory experience (as opposed to nativism). Knowledge cannot exist until a sensory experience has first been experienced. In a second sense empirical in science may be synonymous with experimental. In this sense, an empirical result is an experimental observation. -Empiricism (greek eľpe???sľ??, from empirical, latin experientia - the experience), is the philosophical doctrine that all human knowledge comes at first from senses and experience. -Empiricism denies that humans have innate ideas or that anything is knowable prior to any experience. -Sensory experience is the primary data of knowledge. -Knowledge cannot exist until a sensory experience has first been experienced. -All further knowledge must come from the sensory experiences.-Empiricism (greek eľpe???sľ??, from empirical, latin experientia - the experience), is the philosophical doctrine that all human knowledge comes at first from senses and experience. -Empiricism denies that humans have innate ideas or that anything is knowable prior to any experience. -Sensory experience is the primary data of knowledge. -Knowledge cannot exist until a sensory experience has first been experienced. -All further knowledge must come from the sensory experiences.

    5. British Empiricism Thomas Hobbes Born in 1588 in England His father abandoned the family early Educated at Oxford Was tutor for William, son of William of Cavendish Didn’t pursue philosophy until 1629 Spent much of his life in exile, afraid that he was a marked man during the English Civil War -In 1666 the House of Commons introduced a bill against atheism and profaneness. On October 17 it was ordered that the committee to which the bill was referred "should be empowered to receive information touching such books as tend to atheism, blasphemy and profaneness... In particular... the book of Mr. Hobbes called the Leviathan." Hobbes was terrified at the prospect of being labeled a heretic, and proceeded to burn some of his compromising papers. At the same time he examined the actual state of the law of heresy. Hobbes discovered that, due to the civil war, here remained no court of heresy at all to which he was amenable, and that nothing could be heresy except opposing the Nicene Creed, as he maintained Leviathan did not. -Hobbes defended the divine right of kings, much to the chagrin of the Parliamentarians during the English Civil War -In 1666 the House of Commons introduced a bill against atheism and profaneness. On October 17 it was ordered that the committee to which the bill was referred "should be empowered to receive information touching such books as tend to atheism, blasphemy and profaneness... In particular... the book of Mr. Hobbes called the Leviathan." Hobbes was terrified at the prospect of being labeled a heretic, and proceeded to burn some of his compromising papers. At the same time he examined the actual state of the law of heresy. Hobbes discovered that, due to the civil war, here remained no court of heresy at all to which he was amenable, and that nothing could be heresy except opposing the Nicene Creed, as he maintained Leviathan did not. -Hobbes defended the divine right of kings, much to the chagrin of the Parliamentarians during the English Civil War

    6. British Empiricism Thomas Hobbes Humans as Machines Humans can be understood using the techniques of geometry (deductive) Using a few undeniable premises, many undeniable conclusions could be reached. Universe consists solely of matter and motion, both understood mechanically. Humans are part of nature, therefore… Life is but motion of limbs. Heart but a spring Nerves like strings -Hobbes was inspired when he read Euclid’s Elements -Hobbes used as his fundamental assumption, humans are machines.-Hobbes was inspired when he read Euclid’s Elements -Hobbes used as his fundamental assumption, humans are machines.

    7. British Empiricism Thomas Hobbes Government Protects Humans from Destructive Instincts Leviathan (1651) Absolute monarchy was the best form of government People are aggressive, selfish, and greedy and democracy allows these tendencies to emerge. Only when people and church subservient to a monarch could there be law and order. -It is fear of death that motivates humans to create social order. -Civilization is created in self-defense. -In the natural condition of mankind, while some men may be stronger or more intelligent than others, none are so strong and smart as to be beyond a fear of violent death. -When threatened with death, man in his natural state cannot help but defend himself in any way possible. -Self-defense against violent death is Hobbes‘ highest human necessity. -Life in the state of nature is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short" -But war isn't in man's best interest. -He forms peaceful societies by entering into a social contract. -Society is a population beneath an authority, to whom all individuals in that society surrender just enough of their natural right for the authority to be able to ensure internal peace and a common defense. -In Leviathan, Hobbes explicitly states that the sovereign has authority to assert power over matters of faith and doctrine, and that not to do so is a recipe for discord.-It is fear of death that motivates humans to create social order. -Civilization is created in self-defense. -In the natural condition of mankind, while some men may be stronger or more intelligent than others, none are so strong and smart as to be beyond a fear of violent death. -When threatened with death, man in his natural state cannot help but defend himself in any way possible. -Self-defense against violent death is Hobbes‘ highest human necessity. -Life in the state of nature is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short" -But war isn't in man's best interest. -He forms peaceful societies by entering into a social contract. -Society is a population beneath an authority, to whom all individuals in that society surrender just enough of their natural right for the authority to be able to ensure internal peace and a common defense. -In Leviathan, Hobbes explicitly states that the sovereign has authority to assert power over matters of faith and doctrine, and that not to do so is a recipe for discord.

    8. British Empiricism Thomas Hobbes Explanations of Psychological Phenomena Attention: As long as sense organs retain the motion caused by an external object, they cannot respond to others. Imagination: Sense impressions decaying over time. Dreams: Decaying sense impressions while sleeping. Vivid because other sensations not present -Thoughts on Psychology: Man as a Machine; Experience as the Basis of Knowledge -Complex thought based on association. He borrowed from Plato & Aristotle to propose the “law of continuity.” Association leads to “trains of thought”-Thoughts on Psychology: Man as a Machine; Experience as the Basis of Knowledge -Complex thought based on association. He borrowed from Plato & Aristotle to propose the “law of continuity.” Association leads to “trains of thought”

    9. British Empiricism Thomas Hobbes Explanation of Motivation Human behavior is motivated by appetite and aversion (hedonism) Appetite: Seeking pleasurable experiences Sense impressions which facilitate vital functions Use terms like love and good Aversion: Avoiding painful experiences Sense impressions incompatible with vital functions. Use terms like hate and evil -All psychological phenomena come from experiences! -Hobbes denied free-will -Choice is nothing more than a verbal label we use to describe the attractions and aversions we experience while interacting with the environment. -All psychological phenomena come from experiences! -Hobbes denied free-will -Choice is nothing more than a verbal label we use to describe the attractions and aversions we experience while interacting with the environment.

    10. British Empiricism John Locke Born in Wrington, Somerset, about ten miles from Bristol, England Lived during the English Revolution Perhaps witnessed beheading of Charles I His first publication was a poem which was a tribute to Oliver Cromwell. Locke earned a bachelor's degree in 1656 and a master's degree in 1658 from Oxford. Although Locke never became a medical doctor, he earned a doctorate in medicine in 1674. Was personal physician to the Earl of Shaftsbury, who became Lord Chancellor. -John Locke (August 29, 1632 – October 28, 1704) was a 17th-century philosopher concerned primarily with society and epistemology. An Englishman, Locke's notions of a "government with the consent of the governed" and man's natural rights—life, liberty, and estate (property)—had an enormous influence on the development of political philosophy. His ideas formed the basis for the concepts used in American law and government, allowing the colonists to justify revolution. Locke's epistemology and philosophy of mind also had a great deal of significant influence well into the Enlightenment period. -Good friend of Newton and corresponded with him regularly on religious matters. -Most famous work for psychology is An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)-John Locke (August 29, 1632 – October 28, 1704) was a 17th-century philosopher concerned primarily with society and epistemology. An Englishman, Locke's notions of a "government with the consent of the governed" and man's natural rights—life, liberty, and estate (property)—had an enormous influence on the development of political philosophy. His ideas formed the basis for the concepts used in American law and government, allowing the colonists to justify revolution. Locke's epistemology and philosophy of mind also had a great deal of significant influence well into the Enlightenment period. -Good friend of Newton and corresponded with him regularly on religious matters. -Most famous work for psychology is An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)

    11. British Empiricism John Locke Opposition to Innate Ideas -“Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas; how comes it to be furnished? Whence comes it by that vast store which the busy and boundless fancy of man has painted on it with an almost endless variety? Whence has it all the materials of reason and knowledge? “To this I answer, in one word, from experience. In that all our knowledge is founded, and from that it ultimately derives itself. Our observation employed either about external sensible objects, or about the internal operations of our minds perceived and reflected on by ourselves, is that which supplies our understandings with all the materials of thinking. These two are the fountains of knowledge, from whence all the ideas we have, or can naturally have, do spring.”-“Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas; how comes it to be furnished? Whence comes it by that vast store which the busy and boundless fancy of man has painted on it with an almost endless variety? Whence has it all the materials of reason and knowledge? “To this I answer, in one word, from experience. In that all our knowledge is founded, and from that it ultimately derives itself. Our observation employed either about external sensible objects, or about the internal operations of our minds perceived and reflected on by ourselves, is that which supplies our understandings with all the materials of thinking. These two are the fountains of knowledge, from whence all the ideas we have, or can naturally have, do spring.”

    12. British Empiricism John Locke Sensation and Reflection -An idea is a mental image that can be employed while thinking. -The source of all ideas are sensations, but these ideas may be reflected upon to create new ideas. -Reflection can be in the form of perception, thinking, doubting, believing, reasoning, knowing, and willing. -The mind passively receives sensations, then actively processes the ideas using reflection. -The processes of the mind are innate, therefore, Locke, the quintessential empiricist, is also a little bit of a nativist.-An idea is a mental image that can be employed while thinking. -The source of all ideas are sensations, but these ideas may be reflected upon to create new ideas. -Reflection can be in the form of perception, thinking, doubting, believing, reasoning, knowing, and willing. -The mind passively receives sensations, then actively processes the ideas using reflection. -The processes of the mind are innate, therefore, Locke, the quintessential empiricist, is also a little bit of a nativist.

    13. British Empiricism John Locke Simple and Complex Ideas -When the operations of the mind are applied to simple ideas through reflection, complex ideas are formed. -Operations include comparing, remembering, discriminating, combining, enlarging, abstracting, and reasoning. -These operations are innate -The mind can neither create nor destroy ideas, just arrange them. -All human emotions are derived from the feelings of pleasure and pain.-When the operations of the mind are applied to simple ideas through reflection, complex ideas are formed. -Operations include comparing, remembering, discriminating, combining, enlarging, abstracting, and reasoning. -These operations are innate -The mind can neither create nor destroy ideas, just arrange them. -All human emotions are derived from the feelings of pleasure and pain.

    14. British Empiricism John Locke Primary and Secondary Qualities Quality: That aspect of a physical object that has the power to produce an idea. Primary Qualities: The attributes of physical objects. Those attributes of physical objects that can produce in us ideas that correspond to those attributes. Secondary Qualities: Sensations that have no counterparts in the physical world. Those attributes of physical objects or events that cause sensations that do not resemble those attributes. That is, secondary qualities are attributes of physical objects or events that cause psychological experiences that have no counterparts in the physical world. -Both primary and secondary qualities can produce ideas -With primary qualities, there is a match between what is physically present and what is experienced. -The physical stimulation is substantial enough to cause an idea which matches the physical reality. -With secondary qualities, which also have the power to produce ideas, there is no match between what is physically present and what is experienced. -Only fractions of physical bodies which stimulate us. -We experience sensations of things not actually present physically. -Is temperature a characteristic of the physical world? -Yes, objects in the physical world are hot, cold, or in between. -No, Paradox of the basins -Take three basins of water, one cold, one warm, one hot. -Place one hand in each the hot and cold basins and wait. -The hand in the hot basin will feel hot, indicating that temperature is a primary quality of the water. -Then place both hands in the warm basin and one will feel the water as cold and the other will feel the water as hot. -I guess temperature is a secondary quality.-Both primary and secondary qualities can produce ideas -With primary qualities, there is a match between what is physically present and what is experienced. -The physical stimulation is substantial enough to cause an idea which matches the physical reality. -With secondary qualities, which also have the power to produce ideas, there is no match between what is physically present and what is experienced. -Only fractions of physical bodies which stimulate us. -We experience sensations of things not actually present physically. -Is temperature a characteristic of the physical world? -Yes, objects in the physical world are hot, cold, or in between. -No, Paradox of the basins -Take three basins of water, one cold, one warm, one hot. -Place one hand in each the hot and cold basins and wait. -The hand in the hot basin will feel hot, indicating that temperature is a primary quality of the water. -Then place both hands in the warm basin and one will feel the water as cold and the other will feel the water as hot. -I guess temperature is a secondary quality.

    15. British Empiricism John Locke Association of Ideas -Locke added the laws of association to his theory as almost an afterthought. -Later empiricists formally took over this idea later. -Laws of Association are just another way to say the innate processes of the mind.-Locke added the laws of association to his theory as almost an afterthought. -Later empiricists formally took over this idea later. -Laws of Association are just another way to say the innate processes of the mind.

    16. British Empiricism John Locke Education -Though Locke sounds like a meany, he was onto something. -A current view in the medical literature concerns the cleanliness hypothesis. -Because our society has become so clean (antibacterial, etc) children are not exposed to germs when young which build their immune systems. -Later in life, these weakened immune systems can not cope and things such as allergies arise.-Though Locke sounds like a meany, he was onto something. -A current view in the medical literature concerns the cleanliness hypothesis. -Because our society has become so clean (antibacterial, etc) children are not exposed to germs when young which build their immune systems. -Later in life, these weakened immune systems can not cope and things such as allergies arise.

    17. British Empiricism John Locke Government By and For the People -Locke’s Epitaph -"Stop Traveller! Near this place lieth John Locke. If you ask what kind of a man he was, he answers that he lived content with his own small fortune. Bred a scholar, he made his learning subservient only to the cause of truth. This thou will learn from his writings, which will show thee everything else concerning him, with greater truth, than the suspected praises of an epitaph. His virtues, indeed, if he had any, were too little for him to propose as matter of praise to himself, or as an example to thee. Let his vices be buried together. As to an example of manners, if you seek that, you have it in the Gospels; of vices, to wish you have one nowhere; if mortality, certainly, (and may it profit thee,) thou hast one here and everywhere.“ -Locke’s Epitaph -"Stop Traveller! Near this place lieth John Locke. If you ask what kind of a man he was, he answers that he lived content with his own small fortune. Bred a scholar, he made his learning subservient only to the cause of truth. This thou will learn from his writings, which will show thee everything else concerning him, with greater truth, than the suspected praises of an epitaph. His virtues, indeed, if he had any, were too little for him to propose as matter of praise to himself, or as an example to thee. Let his vices be buried together. As to an example of manners, if you seek that, you have it in the Gospels; of vices, to wish you have one nowhere; if mortality, certainly, (and may it profit thee,) thou hast one here and everywhere.“

    18. British Empiricism George Berkeley Received Bachelors degree, Master’s degree and ordination as a Deacon by 24 Lectured at Trinity College (Dublin) Was going to found a college in Bermuda for settlers and natives, waited in Newport, RI for funding which never came. Spent last 18 years as a Bishop in the Anglican church UC Berkeley was named for him 100 years after his death -Berkeley, George (1685-1753) Said that the only thing we experience directly is our own perceptions, or secondary qualities. Berkeley offered an empirical explanation of the perception of distance, saying that we learn to associate the sensations caused by the convergence and divergence of the eyes with different distances. Berkeley denied materialism, saying instead that reality exists because God perceives it. We can trust our senses to reflect God's perceptions because God would not create a sensory system that would deceive us.-Berkeley, George (1685-1753) Said that the only thing we experience directly is our own perceptions, or secondary qualities. Berkeley offered an empirical explanation of the perception of distance, saying that we learn to associate the sensations caused by the convergence and divergence of the eyes with different distances. Berkeley denied materialism, saying instead that reality exists because God perceives it. We can trust our senses to reflect God's perceptions because God would not create a sensory system that would deceive us.

    19. British Empiricism George Berkeley Opposition to Materialism The downfall of scholasticism brought with it a decline in religion. Materialism, philosophical belief that everything in the universe is physical, including those things we think of as mental (think Newton and others), was leading to the downfall of religion. The world becomes nothing but matter in motion. Attacked the foundation of materialism, its assumption that matter exists. Primary work A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710) -Materialism led to Deism-The belief that God's creation of the universe exhausted his involvement with it. -Materialism led to Deism-The belief that God's creation of the universe exhausted his involvement with it.

    20. British Empiricism George Berkeley “To be is to be perceived” As Locke, knowledge is based only on ideas. Disagreed with Locke’s notion that all ideas are derived from interactions with the empirical world. All things come into existence once they are perceived, reality consists of our perceptions, that’s all! Only secondary qualities exist. -Existence of Reality -Berkeley did not say that reality ceases to exist when no one is perceiving it. -He denied that external reality consists of matter. -External reality is God’s perception. -Because it is God’s perception, it can remain stable over time. -The laws of nature are ideas in God’s mind! -God occasionally changes his mind, thus creating miracles! -With experience, the ideas in our minds come to resemble the ideas in God’s mind.-Existence of Reality -Berkeley did not say that reality ceases to exist when no one is perceiving it. -He denied that external reality consists of matter. -External reality is God’s perception. -Because it is God’s perception, it can remain stable over time. -The laws of nature are ideas in God’s mind! -God occasionally changes his mind, thus creating miracles! -With experience, the ideas in our minds come to resemble the ideas in God’s mind.

    21. British Empiricism George Berkeley Principle of Association Each sense modality furnishes a different type of information about an object. Through experience we learn that certain ideas are always associated with specific objects. The objects we name are aggregates of sensations that typically accompany each other. The Law of Contiguity is the main law of association. -Objects are aggregates of sensations and nothing more! -Memories are stored in multiple parts of the brain, based on the sensations involved. -Objects are aggregates of sensations and nothing more! -Memories are stored in multiple parts of the brain, based on the sensations involved.

    22. British Empiricism David Hume Studied at University of Edinburgh Rich, didn’t need to “work” Twice nominated to a faculty position, was denied by the Scottish clergy Religion is both irrational and impractical, sought refuge in philosophy Treatise of Human Nature, Being an Attempt to Introduce the Experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects (1739/1740) was not initially well received. -Hume, David (1711-1776) Agreed with Berkeley that we could experience only our own subjective reality but disagreed with Berkeley's contention that we could assume that our perceptions accurately reflect the physical world because God would not deceive us. For Hume, we can be sure of nothing. Even the notion of cause and effect, which is so important to Newtonian physics, is nothing more than a habit of thought. Hume distinguished between impressions, which are vivid, and ideas, which are faint copies of impressions.-Hume, David (1711-1776) Agreed with Berkeley that we could experience only our own subjective reality but disagreed with Berkeley's contention that we could assume that our perceptions accurately reflect the physical world because God would not deceive us. For Hume, we can be sure of nothing. Even the notion of cause and effect, which is so important to Newtonian physics, is nothing more than a habit of thought. Hume distinguished between impressions, which are vivid, and ideas, which are faint copies of impressions.

    23. British Empiricism David Hume Hume’s Goal “It is evident, that all the sciences have a relation, greater or less, to human nature; and that, however wide any of them may seem to run from it, they still return back by one passage or another” All important matters reflect human nature and therefore understanding that nature is essential. Wanted to do for moral philosophy (social sciences) what Newton had done for natural philosophy (hard sciences). Combine empirical philosophy with the principles of Newtonian science. -Hume proposed experiments of cognitive experience. -An experiment is careful observation of how experiences are related to each other and how experience is related to behavior. -Not quite as controlled as experiment in the natural sciences.-Hume proposed experiments of cognitive experience. -An experiment is careful observation of how experiences are related to each other and how experience is related to behavior. -Not quite as controlled as experiment in the natural sciences.

    24. British Empiricism David Hume Impressions and Ideas Although the ultimate nature of physical reality is obscure, its existence must be assumed in all rational deliberations. Types of perceptions Impressions: According to Hume, the relatively strong mental experiences caused by sensory stimulation. Impression is essentially the same thing as what others called sensation. Ideas: Relatively weak perceptions. -Like all empiricists, the contents of the mind came solely from experience. -Experience could come from internal or external events. -Hume did not deny the existence of physical reality, he denied the possibility of ever knowing it directly, we can only have perceptions of it.-Like all empiricists, the contents of the mind came solely from experience. -Experience could come from internal or external events. -Hume did not deny the existence of physical reality, he denied the possibility of ever knowing it directly, we can only have perceptions of it.

    25. British Empiricism David Hume Simple and Complex Ideas Same distinction of simple and complex ideas as Locke. All simple ideas were once impressions Once ideas exist in the mind, they can be rearranged Imagination: The power of the mind to arrange and rearrange ideas into countless configurations. We can ponder thoughts of things that do not exist “The idea of God, as meaning an infinitely intelligent, wise, and good Being, arises from reflecting on the operations of our own mind, and augmenting, without limit, those qualities of goodness and wisdom.” -Do you wonder why the clergy denied his faculty position?-Do you wonder why the clergy denied his faculty position?

    26. British Empiricism David Hume The Association of Ideas Law of Resemblance: The tendency for our thoughts to run from one event to similar events--the same as what others call the law of similarity. Law of Contiguity: The tendency for events that are experienced together to be remembered together. Law of Cause and Effect: If in our experience one event always precedes the occurrence of another event, we tend to believe that the former event is the cause of the latter. -If the imagination were the only thing combining ideas, they would be loose and unconnected and chance alone would connect them. -Associations among ideas would be different for everyone. -Rather, a great deal of similarity exists among the associations of all humans. -There must exist certain laws of association which are common to all humans. -The Law of Cause and effect was the most important -Let’s remember that science allows us to discover causal laws, the ones that really matter.-If the imagination were the only thing combining ideas, they would be loose and unconnected and chance alone would connect them. -Associations among ideas would be different for everyone. -Rather, a great deal of similarity exists among the associations of all humans. -There must exist certain laws of association which are common to all humans. -The Law of Cause and effect was the most important -Let’s remember that science allows us to discover causal laws, the ones that really matter.

    27. British Empiricism David Hume Analysis of Causation Since Aristotle, A causes B referred to a natural relationship between the essences of A and B Knowledge of A allows for prediction of B This can be done by knowing the essences of A and B, not from observing A and B For Hume, we can never know two events occur together unless we experience them together. For the Empiricist, causation is not a logical necessity, it is a psychological experience! -Observations that need to be made in order to conclude that two events are causally related: -1. The cause and effect must be contiguous in space and time -2. The cause must be prior to the effect -3. There must be a constant union betwixt the cause and the effect. -It is chiefly this quality that constitutes the relation. -4. The same cause always produces the same effect, and the same effect never arises but from the same cause. -We operate under the belief that relationships observed in the past will continue to exist into the future. -Even if all the requirements are met, we can still come to false conclusions, like the sunset causes the sunrise. -It is not rationality that allows us to live effective lives, it is experience.-Observations that need to be made in order to conclude that two events are causally related: -1. The cause and effect must be contiguous in space and time -2. The cause must be prior to the effect -3. There must be a constant union betwixt the cause and the effect. -It is chiefly this quality that constitutes the relation. -4. The same cause always produces the same effect, and the same effect never arises but from the same cause. -We operate under the belief that relationships observed in the past will continue to exist into the future. -Even if all the requirements are met, we can still come to false conclusions, like the sunset causes the sunrise. -It is not rationality that allows us to live effective lives, it is experience.

    28. British Empiricism David Hume Hume’s Influence Vastly increased the importance of psychology Everything we know (including philosophy, religion and science) comes from experience. Beliefs are expectations that events correlated in the past will remain correlated in the future. Empirical knowledge alone can furnish the knowledge to allow us effectively interact with the world.

    29. British Empiricism David Hartley Combined empiricism and associationism with crude physiological notions. Observations on Man, His Frame, His Duty, and His Expectations (1749) Lingering vibrations in the brain caused by nerves following a sensation constitute ideas. Vibratiuncles: The vibrations that linger in the brain after the initial vibrations caused by external stimulation ceased (create ideas). Ideas are faint replications of sensations. -Hartley, David (1705-1757) Combined empiricism and associationism with rudimentary physiological notions. -Hartley tried to combine empiricism, associationism, and physiology.-Hartley, David (1705-1757) Combined empiricism and associationism with rudimentary physiological notions. -Hartley tried to combine empiricism, associationism, and physiology.

    30. British Empiricism David Hartley Laws of Association can be used to explain learned behavior. Initially reflexive behavior becomes associated with environmental stimuli. A child’s grasping becomes associated with their favorite toy. Eventually, the reflexive behavior becomes voluntary. Through repeated experience, voluntary behavior can become as automatic as involuntary (reflexive) behavior. -Hartley believed that pleasure and pain govern behavior (Hedonism). -Tying shoes was once a very challenging task for you. Following MUCH experience, the task has become automatic.-Hartley believed that pleasure and pain govern behavior (Hedonism). -Tying shoes was once a very challenging task for you. Following MUCH experience, the task has become automatic.

    31. British Empiricism James Mill Born at Northwater Bridge, in the parish of Logie-Pert, Forfarshire Educated at University of Edinburgh Worked for a member of parliament named Sir John Stuart Had a famous son called John Stuart Mill Wrote History of British India (1817), scoring him a good career with the East India Company. Most influential Psychology book was Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind (1829). -Mill, James (1773-1836) Maintained that all mental events consisted of sensations and ideas (copies of sensations) held together by association. No matter how complex an idea was, Mill felt that it could be reduced to simple ideas. -A failed preacher who made his living tutoring and doing various historical writings including a translation of the most influential work on the reformation. -Primarily a social reformer -Social, political, and educational change is facilitated by an understanding of human nature. -Mill, James (1773-1836) Maintained that all mental events consisted of sensations and ideas (copies of sensations) held together by association. No matter how complex an idea was, Mill felt that it could be reduced to simple ideas. -A failed preacher who made his living tutoring and doing various historical writings including a translation of the most influential work on the reformation. -Primarily a social reformer -Social, political, and educational change is facilitated by an understanding of human nature.

    32. British Empiricism James Mill Utilitarianism In 1808, James Mill met Jeremy Bentham Utilitarianism: Political and ethical belief that the best society or government is one that provides the greatest good (happiness) for the greatest number of individuals. Happiness is the ability to obtain pleasure. James Mill was first and foremost a social reformer, understanding human mind was just a part of that. -Bentham, Jeremy (1748-1832) Said that the seeking of pleasure and the avoidance of pain governed most human behavior. Bentham also said that the best society was one that did the greatest good for the greatest number of people. -Utilitarianism -A traditional approach to the philosophy of morality and law proposed by Bentham -"The greatest good for the greatest number." or: "The greatest good over the least pain." A theory that the morality of any action or law is defined by its utility. -Assumes all individuals “happiness” is equally weighted, no one more important than anyone else. -Act vs. Rule Utilitarianism -Act utilitarianism states that the best act is whichever act would yield the most happiness. -Rule utilitarianism instead states that the best act is to follow the general rule which would yield the most happiness. -Should a surgeon cut up one healthy person in order to transplant organs into six people that need transplants? -Utilitarianism and Other Species -Some animal rights activists have argued that the happiness of all species who can feel pain and pleasure should count, not only the feelings of humans. Even those utilitarians arguing otherwise note that the happiness of those humans who suffer if animals suffer should count. -Should I be a vegetarian to reduce suffering of animals? -Should I be a vegetarian to reduce the suffering activists feel when animals suffer?-Bentham, Jeremy (1748-1832) Said that the seeking of pleasure and the avoidance of pain governed most human behavior. Bentham also said that the best society was one that did the greatest good for the greatest number of people. -Utilitarianism -A traditional approach to the philosophy of morality and law proposed by Bentham -"The greatest good for the greatest number." or: "The greatest good over the least pain." A theory that the morality of any action or law is defined by its utility. -Assumes all individuals “happiness” is equally weighted, no one more important than anyone else. -Act vs. Rule Utilitarianism -Act utilitarianism states that the best act is whichever act would yield the most happiness. -Rule utilitarianism instead states that the best act is to follow the general rule which would yield the most happiness. -Should a surgeon cut up one healthy person in order to transplant organs into six people that need transplants? -Utilitarianism and Other Species -Some animal rights activists have argued that the happiness of all species who can feel pain and pleasure should count, not only the feelings of humans. Even those utilitarians arguing otherwise note that the happiness of those humans who suffer if animals suffer should count. -Should I be a vegetarian to reduce suffering of animals? -Should I be a vegetarian to reduce the suffering activists feel when animals suffer?

    33. British Empiricism James Mill Associationism Attempted to show that the mind consisted of only sensations and ideas held together by contiguity. Complex ideas are composed of simple ideas. When ideas continually experienced together, the association among them becomes so strong that they appear as a single idea. Complex ideas are reducible to simple ideas. Vividness and frequency determine the strength of associations. -Simple ideas can be combined to form complex ideas. -Complex ideas can be combined to form more complex ideas. -At the base of ALL mental experience are sensations and the ideas they initiate. -The mind is explainable using Newtonian physics. -For Newton, the universe consisted of material elements held together by physical forces and acting in a predictable manner. -For Mill, the mind consists of mental elements held together by the laws of association. -Therefore, mental experience is as predictable as physical events. -The mind performed “mental mechanics” and had no creative abilities.-Simple ideas can be combined to form complex ideas. -Complex ideas can be combined to form more complex ideas. -At the base of ALL mental experience are sensations and the ideas they initiate. -The mind is explainable using Newtonian physics. -For Newton, the universe consisted of material elements held together by physical forces and acting in a predictable manner. -For Mill, the mind consists of mental elements held together by the laws of association. -Therefore, mental experience is as predictable as physical events. -The mind performed “mental mechanics” and had no creative abilities.

    34. British Empiricism John Stuart Mill James Mill tried to use the associative principles to raise his son. J. S. Mill learned Greek by 3, Latin and algebra by 8, and logic by 12 J. S. M. also suffered bouts of depression Wrote A System of Logic, Ratiocentive and Inductive: Being a Connected View of the Principles of Evidence, and the Methods of Scientific Investigation (1843), 8 editions Described methodology all sciences should use and how the methods could be used for a science of human nature. -Mill, John Stuart (1806-1873) Disagreed with his father James that all complex ideas could be reduced to simple ideas. J. S. Mill proposed a process of mental chemistry according to which complex ideas could be distinctly different from the simple ideas (elements) that constituted them. J. S. Mill believed strongly that a science of human nature could be and should be developed.-Mill, John Stuart (1806-1873) Disagreed with his father James that all complex ideas could be reduced to simple ideas. J. S. Mill proposed a process of mental chemistry according to which complex ideas could be distinctly different from the simple ideas (elements) that constituted them. J. S. Mill believed strongly that a science of human nature could be and should be developed.

    35. British Empiricism John Stuart Mill Laws of Association Every sensation leaves in the mind an idea that resembles the sensation but is weaker in intensity. Similar ideas tend to excite one another When sensations or ideas are frequently experienced together, either simultaneously or successively, they become associated. More vivid sensations or ideas form stronger associations than less vivid ones. Strength of association varies with frequency of occurrence. -This list summarizes his father’s beliefs, but added the law of similarity.-This list summarizes his father’s beliefs, but added the law of similarity.

    36. British Empiricism John Stuart Mill Mental Chemistry Mental Chemistry: The process by which individual sensations can combine to form a new idea or sensation that is different from any of the individual sensations that constitute it. Hydrogen and Oxygen, both gases at room temperature, combine to produce water, a liquid at room temperature. When a new idea does emerge, it does so automatically. When hydrogen is put next to oxygen, they cannot stop themselves from combining and forming water. -Complex ideas are not ALWAYS an aggregate of simple ideas. -Chemicals often combine to create something TOTALLY different from the elements that made them up. -When all the colors of the spectrum are combined, we see white light. -Sounds VERY similar to the Structuralism vs. Gestalt debate of 100 years later!-Complex ideas are not ALWAYS an aggregate of simple ideas. -Chemicals often combine to create something TOTALLY different from the elements that made them up. -When all the colors of the spectrum are combined, we see white light. -Sounds VERY similar to the Structuralism vs. Gestalt debate of 100 years later!

    37. British Empiricism John Stuart Mill Toward a Science of Human Nature Primary Laws: The general laws that determine the overall behavior of events within a system. If known, and no other causes intervene, prediction is perfect (exact sciences). Secondary Laws: The laws that interact with primary laws and determine the nature of individual events under specific circumstances. Psychology however, has things such as individual differences to deal with (inexact sciences). -J. S. Mill had as his goal the creation of a mental science. -Attacked the common belief that human thoughts, feelings, and actions are not subject to scientific scrutiny. -Any system governed by laws is subject to science, even if we don’t yet understand the laws totally. -Meteorology is the science of weather, a phenomena based on poorly understood laws. -Human behavior is predictable in the global sense because primary laws exist, but not in the individual sense because of the secondary laws which cannot be known beforehand. -Individual differences-J. S. Mill had as his goal the creation of a mental science. -Attacked the common belief that human thoughts, feelings, and actions are not subject to scientific scrutiny. -Any system governed by laws is subject to science, even if we don’t yet understand the laws totally. -Meteorology is the science of weather, a phenomena based on poorly understood laws. -Human behavior is predictable in the global sense because primary laws exist, but not in the individual sense because of the secondary laws which cannot be known beforehand. -Individual differences

    38. British Empiricism John Stuart Mill Ethology The science of human behavior (Psychology) should function to discover the primary laws of human behavior. Ethology: J. S. Mill's proposed study of how specific individuals act under specific circumstances. In other words, it is the study of how the primary laws governing human behavior interact with secondary laws to produce an individual's behavior in a situation. -Modern ethology studies animal behavior in its natural habitat and then attempts to explain that behavior in terms of evolution. -Mill wanted a way to change the study of human behavior from an inexact science to an exact science. -Modern ethology studies animal behavior in its natural habitat and then attempts to explain that behavior in terms of evolution. -Mill wanted a way to change the study of human behavior from an inexact science to an exact science.

    39. British Empiricism Alexander Bain Educated at the University of Aberdeen Worked as a weaver to earn money for education Friend of J. S. Mill The Senses and the Intellect (1855), Emotions and the Will (1859), and Manual of Mental and Moral Science (1868) Founded the first psychological journal, Mind (1876) His goal was to describe the physiological correlates of mental and behavioral phenomena. His text began with a chapter on neurology -Bain, Alexander (1818-1903) The first to attempt to relate known physiological facts to psychological phenomena. He also wrote the first psychology texts, and he founded psychology's first journal, Mind (1876). Bain explained voluntary behavior in much the same way that modern learning theorists later explained trial-and-error behavior. Finally, Bain added the law of compound association and the law of constructive association to the older, traditional laws of association. -The Manual of Mental and Moral Science was a condensed version of his two earlier works which had been way too large to be useful in the classroom.-Bain, Alexander (1818-1903) The first to attempt to relate known physiological facts to psychological phenomena. He also wrote the first psychology texts, and he founded psychology's first journal, Mind (1876). Bain explained voluntary behavior in much the same way that modern learning theorists later explained trial-and-error behavior. Finally, Bain added the law of compound association and the law of constructive association to the older, traditional laws of association. -The Manual of Mental and Moral Science was a condensed version of his two earlier works which had been way too large to be useful in the classroom.

    40. British Empiricism Alexander Bain Laws of Association Law of Contiguity: Main law of association Law of Frequency Law of Similarity Law of Compound Association: Contiguous or similar events form compound ideas and are remembered together. If one or a few elements of the compound idea are experienced, they may elicit the memory of the entire compound. Law of Constructive Association: The mind can rearrange the memories of various experiences so that the creative associations formed are different from the experiences that gave rise to the associations. -The mind has three components -Feeling -Volition -Intellect, explained by the laws of association -Laws of association had their effects at the level of the brain (what we would call synapses). -The Law of constructive association can explain where false memories come from.-The mind has three components -Feeling -Volition -Intellect, explained by the laws of association -Laws of association had their effects at the level of the brain (what we would call synapses). -The Law of constructive association can explain where false memories come from.

    41. British Empiricism Alexander Bain Voluntary Behavior Reflexive behavior is involuntary because of the structure of the nervous system. Spontaneous Activity: Behavior that is simply emitted by an organism rather than being elicited by external stimulation (operant behavior). Voluntary Behavior: Under some circumstances, an organism's spontaneous activity leads to pleasurable consequences. After several such occurrences, the organism will come to voluntarily engage in the behavior that was originally spontaneous. -Spontaneous activity combined with hedonism can explain voluntary behavior. -Hedonism explains how spontaneous activity becomes voluntary behavior (Thorndike’s law of Effect). -Spontaneous activity combined with hedonism can explain voluntary behavior. -Hedonism explains how spontaneous activity becomes voluntary behavior (Thorndike’s law of Effect).

    42. French Sensationalism The French Newtonians of the mind Naturalists, mechanists, empiricists, materialists Reduced all mental activity to its basic elements. Not terribly different from the British Empiricists Stressed the importance of sensations in explaining all conscious experiences. -French, like British, applied Newton principles to explain workings of mind. -Both British and French tried to explain the mind according to the following: -Simple laws: simple explanations with as few assumptions as possible -Reductionistic: reduced complex thought into simple elements -both avoided metaphysical explanation -French tended to be even more mechanistic than British-French, like British, applied Newton principles to explain workings of mind. -Both British and French tried to explain the mind according to the following: -Simple laws: simple explanations with as few assumptions as possible -Reductionistic: reduced complex thought into simple elements -both avoided metaphysical explanation -French tended to be even more mechanistic than British

    43. French Sensationalism Pierre Gassendi Attacked Descartes’ dualism, why could lower animals move themselves quite well without a mind? The mind is just the functions of the brain. Humans are nothing but matter and could therefore be studied just as any other matter in the universe. -Gassendi, Pierre (1592-1655) Saw humans as nothing but complex, physical machines, and he saw no need to assume a nonphysical mind. Gassendi had much in common with Hobbes. -Gassendi, Pierre (1592-1655) Saw humans as nothing but complex, physical machines, and he saw no need to assume a nonphysical mind. Gassendi had much in common with Hobbes.

    44. French Sensationalism Julien de La Mettrie Physician that fell ill while serving in the French and Austrian war. Pondered the relationship between mind and body while recovering. The Natural History of the Soul (1745) If the mind separate from body as Descartes proposed, how can wine effect thoughts? You are what you eat…! Whatever influences the body also influences the mind. -La Mettrie, Julien de (1709-1751) Believed humans were machines that differed from other animals only in complexity. La Mettrie believed that so-called mental experiences are nothing but movements of particles in the brain. He also believed that accepting materialism would result in a better, more humane world. -You are what you eat… -“Raw meat makes animals fierce, & it would have the same effect on man. This is so true that the English who eat meat red & bloody, not as well done as ours, seem to share more or less the savagery due to this kind of food, & to other causes which can be rendered ineffective by education only”-La Mettrie, Julien de (1709-1751) Believed humans were machines that differed from other animals only in complexity. La Mettrie believed that so-called mental experiences are nothing but movements of particles in the brain. He also believed that accepting materialism would result in a better, more humane world. -You are what you eat… -“Raw meat makes animals fierce, & it would have the same effect on man. This is so true that the English who eat meat red & bloody, not as well done as ours, seem to share more or less the savagery due to this kind of food, & to other causes which can be rendered ineffective by education only”

    45. French Sensationalism Julien de La Mettrie Man a Machine L’Homme Machine (Man a Machine, 1748) “Let us conclude boldly that man is a machine, and that in the whole universe there is but a single substance differently molded.” Every existing thing, including humans, consists of matter. Humans are different from animals by degree only “With proper training, humans and apes could be made remarkably similar.” -His first book, The Natural History of the Soul had offended the French church so strongly that La Mettrie had to go into exile in Holland. While there he wrote L’Homme Machine which upset the Dutch church so badly he had to leave. Frederick the Great offered La Mettrie a pension and refuge in Berlin. -Man & animals are extremely similar. Here are his observations: -“Among animals, some learn to speak and sing; they remember tunes, and strike the notes as exactly as a musician. Others, for instance the ape, show more intelligence and yet can not learn music. What is the reason for this, except some defect in the organs of speech? In a work, would it be absolutely impossible to teach the ape a language? I do not think so.” -“... Man is not molded from a costlier clay; nature has used but one dough, and has merely varied the leaven.”-- these thoughts 100 years prior to Darwin.-His first book, The Natural History of the Soul had offended the French church so strongly that La Mettrie had to go into exile in Holland. While there he wrote L’Homme Machine which upset the Dutch church so badly he had to leave. Frederick the Great offered La Mettrie a pension and refuge in Berlin. -Man & animals are extremely similar. Here are his observations: -“Among animals, some learn to speak and sing; they remember tunes, and strike the notes as exactly as a musician. Others, for instance the ape, show more intelligence and yet can not learn music. What is the reason for this, except some defect in the organs of speech? In a work, would it be absolutely impossible to teach the ape a language? I do not think so.” -“... Man is not molded from a costlier clay; nature has used but one dough, and has merely varied the leaven.”-- these thoughts 100 years prior to Darwin.

    46. French Sensationalism Etienne Bonnot de Condillac Ordained a Catholic priest Later became a critic of religious dogma Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge: A Supplement to Mr. Locke’s Essay on Human Understanding (1746) and Treatise on the Sensations (1754) Felt Locke was right to assume all knowledge comes from senses, but Locke gave too many innate powers to the mind, laws of Association much simpler explanation. -Condillac, Étienne Bonnot de (1714-1780) Maintained that all human mental attributes could be explained using only the concept of sensation and that it was therefore unnecessary to postulate an autonomous mind.-Condillac, Étienne Bonnot de (1714-1780) Maintained that all human mental attributes could be explained using only the concept of sensation and that it was therefore unnecessary to postulate an autonomous mind.

    47. French Sensationalism Claude Helvétius Essays on the Mind (1758), A Treatise on Man, His Intellectual Faculties and His Education (1772) Explored in depth the implication of the contention that the contents of the mind come only from experience. Control experience and you control the mind! Environmentalism: All manner of social skills, moral behavior, even genius could be taught through the control of experience. -Helvétius, Claude (1715-1771) Elaborated the implications of empiricism and sensationalism for education. That is, a person's intellectual development can be determined by controlling his or her experiences.-Helvétius, Claude (1715-1771) Elaborated the implications of empiricism and sensationalism for education. That is, a person's intellectual development can be determined by controlling his or her experiences.

    48. Positivism Scientism: The almost religious belief that science can answer all questions and solve all problems. Positivism: The contention that science should study only that which can be directly experienced. Trust only what is experienced & can be consistently experienced again. -Early goal: create a science of man that was based on methods of the physical sciences. -Unlike Empiricists, rejected introspection as means for getting knowledge -Only physiology & behavior were science worthy. -Processes not observable-- are not scientific (associations & simple ideas)-Early goal: create a science of man that was based on methods of the physical sciences. -Unlike Empiricists, rejected introspection as means for getting knowledge -Only physiology & behavior were science worthy. -Processes not observable-- are not scientific (associations & simple ideas)

    49. Positivism Auguste Comte Science must rely on publicly observed events or overt behavior. Things others can sense as well. The data of science NEEDS to be publicly observable (ESP ain’t gonna be a science!) Science should improve society, period. “I have a supreme aversion to scientific labors whose utility, direct or remote, I do not see.” -Comte, August (1798-1857) The founder of positivism and coiner of the term sociology. He felt that cultures passed through three stages in the way they explained phenomena: the theological, the metaphysical, and the scientific. -Later he turned to religious affairs: Created a religion & appointed himself high priest. -Comte, August (1798-1857) The founder of positivism and coiner of the term sociology. He felt that cultures passed through three stages in the way they explained phenomena: the theological, the metaphysical, and the scientific. -Later he turned to religious affairs: Created a religion & appointed himself high priest.

    50. Positivism Auguste Comte Society progresses through three stages defined in terms of how their members define natural events. Theological-Explanations based on superstition and mysticism. Metaphysical-Explanations are based on unseen essences or laws. Scientific-Description is emphasized over explanation and prediction and control become important. Sociology: For Comte, a study of the types of explanations various societies accepted for natural phenomena. -Described the movement from one stage to another much as Kuhn describes paradigm shifts in science. -In modern science we stress description, prediction, and control and often steer away from explanation.-Described the movement from one stage to another much as Kuhn describes paradigm shifts in science. -In modern science we stress description, prediction, and control and often steer away from explanation.

    51. Positivism Ernst Mach Scientists should only study those things observable by the scientists, an observation does not need to be publicly observable in order for it to qualify as a scientific observation. This opened the door for introspection as a way of gaining scientific knowledge. -Mach, Ernst (1838-1916) Proposed a brand of positivism based on the phenomenological experiences of scientists. Because scientists, or anyone else, never experience the physical world directly, the scientist's job is to precisely describe the relationships among mental phenomena, and to do so without the aid of metaphysical speculation. -Mach, Ernst (1838-1916) Proposed a brand of positivism based on the phenomenological experiences of scientists. Because scientists, or anyone else, never experience the physical world directly, the scientist's job is to precisely describe the relationships among mental phenomena, and to do so without the aid of metaphysical speculation.

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