Development and Inheritance

1. Development and Inheritance Chapter 29

2. Genetics and Inheritance • Every somatic cell carries copies of the original 46 chromosomes in the zygote. • These chromosomes and their component genes constitute the individual’s genotype. • The physical expression of the genotype is the individual’s phenotype. • Every somatic cell contains 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes. • 22 pairs are autosomes and one pair is the sex chromosome (XY in males and XX in females).

3. Genes and Chromosomes • Chromosomes contain DNA, and genes are functional segments of DNA. • The various forms of a gene are called alleles. If both homologous chromosomes carry the same allele of a particular gene, the individual is homozygous;if they carry different alleles, the individual is heterozygous. • Alleles are considered dominant or recessive depending on how their traits are expressed.

4. Genes and Chromosomes • Combining maternal and paternal alleles in a Punnett Square diagram allows us to predict the characteristics of offspring. • Simple inheritance vs. polygenic inheritance. • Genetic recombination, or crossing over and translocation, that occurs during meiosis, increases the variation of male and female gametes. • The human genome project has identified more than 6800 of our estimated 100,000 genes, including some of those responsible for inherited disorders.

5. INTRODUCTION • Fertilization or conception is the fusion of the male and female gametes, that normally occurs in the uterine tube. • Development is the gradual modification of physical and physiological characteristics from conception to maturity. • The creation of different cells types is differentiation. • Inheritance is the transfer of genetically determined characteristics from generation to generation. Genetics is the study of the mechanism of inheritance. • Prenatal development occurs before birth. • Postnatal development begins at birth and continues to maturity, when aging begins.

6. Fertilization • Fertilization, or conception, normally occurs in the uterine tube within a day after ovulation. • Sperm cannot fertilize an oocyte until they have undergone capacitation. • The acrosomal caps of the spermatozoa release hyaluronidase and acrosin, enzymes required to penetrate the corona radiata and zona pellucida.

7. Fertilization • When a single spermatozoan contacts the oocyte membrane, fertilization begins, and oocyte activation follows • during activation, the oocyte completes meiosis II, and polyspermy is prevented by membrane depolarization and the cortical reaction. • After activation, the female pronucleus and male pronucleus fuse in a process called amphimixis.

8. Prenatal Development • During prenatal development, differences in the cytoplasmic composition of the individual cells trigger changes in genetic activity. • The chemical interplay between developing cells is called induction. • The 9-month gestation period can be divided into three trimesters.

9. The first trimester • Cleavage and blastocyst formation. • Cleavage subdivides the cytoplasm of the zygote in a series of mitotic divisions;the zygote becomes a pre-embryo and then a blastocyst. • The blastocyst consists of an outer trophoblast and an inner cell mass.

10. Implantation • During implantation, the blastocyst burrows into the uterine endometrium. • Implantation occurs about 7 days after fertilization. • As the trophoblast enlarges and spreads, maternal blood flows through lacunae. • After gastrulation, the blastodisc becomes an embryo composed of endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm. (germ layers)

11. Extraembryonic Membranes • Germ layers help form four extraembryonic membranes:the yolk sac, amnion, allantois and chorion. • The yolk sac is an important site for blood cell formation. • The amnion encloses fluid that surrounds and cushions the developing embryo. • The base of the allantois gives rise to the urinary bladder. • Circulation within the vessels of the chorion provides provides a rapid-transit system that links the embryo with the trophoblast.

12. Placentation and Embryogenesis • Chorionic villi extend outward into the maternal tissues, forming an intricate branching network through which maternal blood flows. • As development proceeds, the umbilical cord connects the fetus to the placenta. • The trophoblast synthesizes hCG, estrogens, progesterone, hPL, placental prolactin and relaxin. • The first trimester is critical because events in the first 12 weeks establish the basis for organogenesis.

13. Second and Third Trimesters • In the second trimester, the organ systems increase in complexity. During the third trimester, many of the organ systems become fully functional. • The fetus undergoes its largest weight gain in the last trimester. • The developing fetus is fully dependent on maternal organs for nourishment, respiration and waste removal. • Maternal adaptations include increased respiratory rate, tidal volume, blood volume, nutrient and vitamin intake, GFR and uterine and mammary gland size.

14. Labor and delivery • Progesterone produced by the placenta has an inhibitory effect on uterine muscles;its calming action is opposed by estrogens, oxytocin, and prostaglandins. • At some point, multiple factors interact to produce labor contractions in the uterine wall. • The goal of labor is parturition. • Labor can be divided into three stages:dilation, expulsion and placental. • Premature labor may result in immature delivery or premature delivery. • Twin births may be dizygotic or monozygotic.

15. Postnatal development • Postnatal development involves a series of life stages: the neonatal period, infancy, childhood, adolescence and maturity. • Senescence begins at maturity and ends in the death of an individual. • The neonatal period extends from birth to 1 month after. • In the transition from fetus to neonate, the respiratory, circulatory, digestive and urinary systems begin functioning independently. • The newborn must also begin thermoregulation. • Mammary gland cells produce protein rich colostrum-then convert to milk.

16. Adolescence and Maturity • Adolescence begins at puberty:1.the hypothalamus increases its production of GnRH2. Circulating levels of FSH and LH rise rapidly3.ovarian or testicular cells become more sensitive to FSH and LH. • These changes initiate gametogenesis and a sudden rise in growth rate. • These also produce gender-specific differences in the structure and functions of many systems. • Further changes occur when sex hormone levels decline at menopause or the male climateric. • Senescence then begins, producing gradual changes in the functional capabilities of all systems.