Planning Lessons - Step One The Plan

1. Planning Lessons - Step One The Plan • Specify objectives • Select learning activities • Organize learning activities • Specify evaluation procedures

2. Planning Lessons - Step TwoContent Organizational System • Review/assess the content • Overview the content • Present the content • Exercise the content • Summarize the content

3. Planning Lessons - Step ThreePreliminary Planning Sheet

4. Planning Lessons: Step FourWritten Plan Teacher: Target student(s): IEP/IFSP goal: Short-term objectives: Materials: Procedures: Key vocabulary: Time required: Short-term assessment: Long-term evaluation/assessment:

5. Using Behavioral Techniques in the Classroom • Assumptions: all behavior can be explained through the ABCs (antecedent, behavior, consequence). • Operant conditioning: many behaviors are emitted spontaneously and are controlled primarily by their consequences. • Characteristics: • Focus on observable specific behaviors rather than global. • Assessment of the target behavior to be altered. • Evaluation of the lesson effectiveness. • Concern for producing change that is socially significant.

6. Reinforcement:an increase in the frequency of a response when it is immediately followed by certain consequences Positive reinforcement: events which will increase the frequency of the behavior that they follow. • Primary (unconditioned) • Secondary (conditioned) • Negative Reinforcers: events that will increase a response when they are removed. • Timing: to maximize the effect of reinforcement, a reinforcer should be delivered immediately after the target response. • Magnitude • Schedules • Continuous: each response is reinforced. • Intermittent: reinforcement is delivered after some of the responses rather than all of them. • Ratio schedule: reinforcement is contingent upon the emission of a certain number of responses. • Interval schedule: reinforcement is contingent upon the amount of time that passes before a response can be reinforced.

7. Punishment & Extinction • Punishment: the presentation of an aversive event or the removal of an item/event (after the target response) event that decreases the frequency of the target response. • Putting bitter tasting liquid on tongue after cursing. Or • Taking away toy after it is thrown. • Extinction: the cessation of reinforcement of a response. • No consequences follow the response. • An event is not taken away nor is it presented.

8. Shaping & Chaining • Shaping: the terminal behavior is achieved by reinforcing small steps or approximations. • Requires reinforcing behaviors already in the repertoire of the individual that resemble the target behavior. • Successive approximations: responses that are increasingly similar to the final goal are reinforced, and they increase; Those responses dissimilar to the final goal are not reinforced, and they extinguish. • Chaining: a sequence of responses. Each response proceeds in a relatively fixed order until the chain is completed and the last response proceeds in a relatively fixed order until the chain is completed and the last response is reinforced. Sometimes only the final behavior is reinforced. • Ex. Going to a restaurant, dieting, learning to play a musical instrument. • Forward forward. • Total task presentation. • Shaping &. chaining: both use discriminate stimuli & reinforcers to teach new behaviors.

9. Prompting & Fading • Prompts: antecedent events that help to initiate a response. They come before a response is performed and are designed to facilitate its performance. When the prompt does result in the target response, the target response may be reinforced. • Types: • Guiding: physical, verbal • Instructions • Pointing • Observing • Goal: obtain the terminal response in the absence of prompts. • Fading: the gradual removal of a prompt. • Abrupt removal of prompt: response may no longer be performed. • Prompts may be progressively reduced and finally omitted. • Not all prompts needed to be faded.

10. Prompts: assist the child in accomplishing the task Least-to-most: • Verbal • Gestural • Partial physical assistance • Full physical assistance Graduated guidance: a less structured strategy of reducing prompts. Cue: a prompt that directs attention to a specific dimension of an object/task.

11. Discrimination & Stimulus Control • Error correction: methods of preventing or reducing student errors in order to create a reinforcing environment for learning. • Differential reinforcement:reinforcing a response in the presence of one stimulus and not reinforcing the same response in the presence of another stimulus. • Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO):delivery of a reinforcer after any response except the target response. The individual is reinforced only when not performing the target response. Behaviors other than the target response are reinforced. The goal is to decrease the target response.

12. Task Analysis/Learning Hierarchies Breaking down a body of content into its component parts or steps. • Components of TA: 1. Method: select the method that will be used to introduce the skill: direct instruction, peer instruction, observation, self-instruction. 2. Content: determine the size and number of steps/subskills in the content according to the cognitive ability and current skills of the learner. 3. Process: decide the method to be used: fading, chaining, total task. 4. Feedback: the means of providing reinforcement to the learner.

13. Controlling Error Rates During Group Instruction • Why important: • Students learn more when response errors are kept to a minimum. • Procedures promote positive social interactions fewer disruptive and aggressive behaviors. • How to: • Time delay - chaining or task analysis • Choral responding • Activity criteria • Brief responses. • Only one correct answer is possible. • A maximum of 5 to 10 minutes is allotted per session. • Begin with demonstration of response required. • Children must understand type or response required. • Use gestural signs to prompt responding. • Decrease the amount of response.

14. Tutoring Teacher roles: • Training • Identifying the program objectives • Selecting pairs • Designing, administering, and/or overseeing a system for monitoring student progress • Selecting and organizing materials • Observing tutor performance • Providing support and feedback to student teams • Doing whatever is necessary to maintain a positive and enthusiastic learning environment

15. Classwide Peer Tutoring • All students participate as both tutors and tutees. • During training, the teacher carefully describes and models the peer tutoring process for the students, then has them practice each step until the peer tutoring sessions are functioning smoothly. • Students divided into 2 teams: with members of each team subdivided into pairs who alternate being tutor and tutee. • Teams receive points for academic engagement and appropriate behavior. • During the daily tutorial sessions, the tutor obtains responses from the tutee and provides corrective feedback or reinforcement for correct responses.

16. Cooperative Learning • Required for success: • Clear defined group objectives and instructions. • Make decisions about placement before beginning the activity. • Groups are monitored carefully to determine if students need task assistance or process assistance. • An evaluation of each group is conducted by the teacher. Process of cooperative learning: • Begin with small tasks. • Teacher models behaviors for group. • Some skills necessary for cooperative learning may require direct instruction.

17. Learning Centers • Identify the area of instruction to be covered through direct instruction. • List the skills/concepts which have already been taught. • Identify activities which can be used for drill and practice of concepts/skills. • Determine each student's stage of learning (acquisition, fluency, or generalization). • Select activities which provide performance feedback on a frequent basis. • Avoid paper-and-pencil worksheets. • Establish rules for behavior and practice. • Take advantage of motivational factors.

18. Additional References Bedwell, L. E., Hunt, G. H., Touzel, T. J., & Wiseman, D. G. (1984). Effective teaching: Preparation and implementation. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Carkhuff, R. R., & Berenson, D. H. (1981). The skilled teacher: A systems approach to teaching skills. Amherst, MA: Human Resources Developing. Good, T. L., & Brophy, J. E. (1991). Looking in classrooms. New York: Harper-Collins Publishers. Posner, G. (1985). Field experience: A guide to reflective teaching. New York: Longman. Wolfgang, C. H., & Wolfgang, M. E. (1992). Schools for young children. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.