EMP211S WEEK 1

1. EMP211S WEEK 1 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE DEFINITION OF MORPHOLOGY RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MORPHOLOGY AND OTHER LEVELS OF LANGUAGE ANALYSIS

2. SYNCHRONIC AND DIACHRONIC PERSPECTIVES TO STUDYING THE HISTORY OF A LANGUAGE THE SYNCHRONIC PERSPECTIVE TO THE HISTORY OF A LANGUAGE REFERS TO THE SUM TOTAL OF THE SPEECH OF THE PEOPLE WHO USE THE LANGUAGE AT EACH POINT IN TIME THE DIACHRONIC PERSPECTIVE ON THE OTHER HAND REFERS TO THE STUDY OF THE CHANGES THAT HAVE OCCURED IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE LANGUAGE (Ogu, 1992, p.10). OUR FOCUS THIS WEEK IS IN THE DIACHRONIC EVOLUTION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE OVER TIME. IN OTHER WORDS, HOW THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE GREW AND DEVELOPED FROM THE TIME IT BECAME A LANGUAGE SPOKEN BY A VERY SMALL GROUP OF PEOPLE TO THE MODERN DAY GROWTH OF THE LANGUAGE TO A GLOBAL STATUS.

3. INNER/ OUTER HISTORY • THE CHANGES THAT OCCUR IN THE HISTORY OF A LANGUAGE OVER TIME CAN EITHER BE INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL. • THE GRADUAL INTERNAL CHANGES THAT TAKE PLACE IN SUCCESSION OVER TIME IN A LANGUAGE CONSTITUTE THE “INNER HISTORY” OF THE LANGUAGE WHILE THE CHANGES BROUGHT ABOUT BY EXTERNAL INFLUENCES OVER TIME MAKE UP THE “EXTERNAL HISTORY. “ • THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AS WE KNOW IT TODAY HAS BEEN INFLUENCED BY BOTH INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CHANGES SINCE IT WAS FIRST BROUGHT INTO BRITAIN BY THE ANGLO-SAXONS IN THE 6TH CENTURY. • THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THREE BROAD PERIODS FOR THE SAKE OF CONVENIENCE AS THE HISTORY OF A LANGUAGE IS A PROGRESSION OF CHANGE WITHIN A PERMANENT IDENTITY.

4. THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE • OLD ENGLISH PERIOD (449-1100) 2) MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD (1100-1500) 3) MODERN PERIOD (1500- ).

5. OLD ENGLISH (C450-1150) • STARTED AT THE END OF THE 6TH CENTURY WITH THE INVASION OF BRITAIN BY THE ANGLES, THE SAXONS AND THE JUTES-THREE GROUPS OF GERMANIC PEOPLE FROM NORTHERN EUROPE. • BEFORE THESE INVASIONS, BRITAIN WAS ALREADY A PART OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE AS A RESULT OF JULIUS CEASAR’S CONGUEST . • PRIOR TO THE ROMAN CONGUEST, THE PEOPLE WHO INHABITED THE BRITISH ISLAND SPOKE A LANGUAGE THAT IS REFERRED TO AS CELTIC. THE ROMANS HOWEVER INTRODUCED LATIN IN THE ISLAND WHILE CELTIC REMAINED SPOKEN BY THE COMMON PEOPLE IN THE RURAL AREAS. THIS EXPLAINS THE SURVIVAL OF CELTIC IN SOME PARTS OF MODERN DAY WALES AND THE HIGHLANDS OF SCOTLANDS

6. WITHDRAWAL OF THE ROMANS • EARLY IN THE 5TH CENTURY THE ROMANS WITHDREW THEIR ARMY FROM BRITAIN TO PROTECT ROME FROM INVADERS FROM NORTHERN EUROPE LEAVING BRITAIN VULNERABLE TO BE ATTACKED BY THE PICTS AND THE SCOTS FROM THE NORTH AND WEST RESPECTIVELY. • VERY LITTLE OF CELTIC INFLUENCE IS LEFT ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE TODAY EXCEPTS FOR NAMES OF PLACES, RIVERS, HILLS AND TOWNS.

7. WORDS WITH CELTIC INFLUENCE • EXAMPLES OF ENGLISH WORDS WITH CELTIC INFLUENCE ARE: • RIVERS-AVON, STOUT • TOWNS-DUMNONII, DEVON • HILLS-BARR, BREDON • VALLEYS-WINCHCOMBE, DUNCOMBE IN CLASS ASSIGNMENT: FIND OUT SOME OTHER NAMES OF PLACES, HILLS, RIVERS AND TOWNS WITH CELTIC INFLUENCE IN BRITAIN.

8. INFLUENCE OF THE ROMAN OCCUPATION • ROMAN INVASION FROM 55BC- EARLY 5TH CENTURY • LEFT A LOT OF ROMAN INFLUENCE IN THE TOWNS AND CITIES INCLUDING LINGUSITIC EFFECTS AS EXEMPLIFIED IN THE FOLLOWING LATIN WORDS IN MODERN ENGLISH: OLD ENGLISH “CAESTER” FROM LATIN “CASTRA” MEANING (CAMP) A COMMON NAME FOR A TOWN OR ENCLOSED PLACE GAVE RISE TO THE FOLLOWING ENGLISH PLACE NAMES: • CHESTER, MANCHESTER DORCHESTER, LANCASTER FROM THE LATIN “PORTUS” MEANING GATE CAME THE ENGLISH PORT NAMES SUCH AS : • NEWPORT, PORTSEA, PORTSMOUTH FROM THE LATIN “MONS” MEANING MOUNTAIN CAME THE WORDS : • LARCHMONT, OAKMONT IN CLASS ASSIGNMENT: LOOK FOR SOME OTHER WORDS OF COMMON ORIGIN

9. THE ANGLO-SAXON INVASION • ORIGINALLY INVITED BY VORTIGEAN THE KING OF BRITON TO HELP REPEL THE ATTACK OF PICTS AND SCOTS FROM THE NORTH BUT AFTER HELPING TO DEFEAT THEM THEY PLUDERED AND EVENTUALLY OCCUPIED THEIR HOST COUNTRY. • THEY WERE OF GERMANIC TRIBE FROM THE EUROPEAN COAST AND LIVED IN PRESENT DAY DENMARK AND NORTHERN GERMANY. • THEY CAME IN THREE TRIBES: THE ANGLES (ENGLISH), THE SAXONS AND THE JUTES • THE ANGLES IN C. 547 FROM MODERN DENMARK SETTLED IN THE NORTH AND CENTRAL ENGLAND • THE SAXONS IN C. 477 FROM MODERN WEST GERMANY, NOW GERMANY AND SETTLED IN SOUTHERN PART OF THE ISLAND • THE JUTES C. 449 FROM JUTLAND AND THE NORTH SEA COAST AROUND THE MOUTH OF THE RIVER RHINE AND OCCUPIED THE NORTH-EASTERN COUNTRY OF KENT.

10. Nature of the Invasion • Were semi-normadic, warlike, sea-faring but land loving people who absolved the Celtic aborigines through intermarriage, conquest and settlements. • Of the three tribes, the Angles and the Saxons were the most numerous, persistent and absorbed of the invaders. • This may explain the origin of the name England today from AEngle-land, Engle-land.

11. OLD ENGLISH • THE NAME USED TO REFER TO THE LANGUAGE THAT THE THREE GERMANIC TRIBES SPOKE AFTER THE INVASION OF THE ENGLISH ISLAND. • THE LANGUAGE THROUGH FIVE CENTURIES DEVELOP INTO AN INDEPENDENT LANGUAGE DIFFERENT FROM ANY GERMANIC LANGUAGE SPOKEN IN EUROPE. • WAS NOT A UNIFORM LANGUAGE . IT HAS FOUR MAIN DIALECTS AS FOLLOWS: • NORTHUMBRIAN-SPOKEN BETWEEN THE HUMBER RIVER IN ENGLAND AND THE FIRTH OF FORTH IN SCOTLAND • MERCIAN OR MIDLAND-SPOKEN BETWEEN THE HUMBER AND RIVER THAMES • WEST SAXON-SPOKEN SOUTH WEST OF THAMES • KENT-SPOKEN IN KENT AND PARTS OF SURREY

12. LINGUISTIC EFFECTS OF THE ANGLO-SAXON CONGUEST • ADOPTION OF MANY WORDS OF LATIN ORIGINS BECAUSE THE THREE TRIBES HAVE HAD CLOSER CONTACT WITH ROME. • EXAMPLES OF OLD ENGLISH WORDS WITH LATIN AFFLIATION INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING: O. E LATIN MODERN BISCEOP BISCOPUS BISHOP CUPPE CUPPA CUP DISC DISCUS DISH CYCENE COQUINA KITCHEN CYTEL PULVINUS PILLOW

13. THE FAMILY RELATIONSHIP OF ENGLISH • ENGLISH BELONG TO THE GROUP OF LANGUAGES DESCRIBED AS GERMANIC. THIS GROUP INCLUDE GERMAN AND DUTCH. • THE GERMANIC GROUP HAS THREE DIVISIONS: EAST GERMANIC, WEST GERMANIC AND NORTH GERMANIC. • NORTH GERMANIC-SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES: ICELANDIC, DANISH AND SWEDISH LANGUAGES • WEST GERMANIC-SUBDIVIDED INTO HIGH GERMAN, LOW GERMAN AND ANGLO FRISIAN FROM WHICH MODERN ENGLISH DEVELOPED. • EAST GERMANIC IS EXTANT

14. INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE FAMILY • ENGLISH TOGETHER WITH FRENCH, SPANISH, GERMAN AND RUSSIAN ARE ALL MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE FAMILY. ENGLISH AND GERMAN BEING GERMANIC WHILE FRENCH AND SPANISH ARE ROMANCE LANGUAGES AND RUSSIAN SLAVIC. • ALL OF THESE LANGUAGES CAN BE TRACED BACK TO WHAT WAS ONCE A SINGLE INDO-EUROPEAN PROTO-LANGUAGE. • ENGLISH BELONG SPECIFICALLY TO THE TEUTONIC OR GERMANIC BRANCH OF THE INDO-EUOPEAN FAMILY • A FAMILY OF LANGUAGES MEANS A GROUP OF LANGUAGES THAT HAVE ESSENTIAL SIMILARITES IN THE FORMS AND USES OF WORDS. A FAMILY OF LANGUAGE CAN BE SUBDIVIDED INTO VARIOUS BRANCHES, EACH WITH ONE OR MORE LANGUAGES.

15. THE BIRTH OF ENGLISH • ENGLISH BECAME DETACHED FROM ITS GERMANIC ORIGIN WHEN THE ANGLO-SAXON WARRIORS MIGRATED FROM THEIR ORIGINAL PLACES IN THE EUROPEAN CONTINENT TO THE BRITISH ISLAND. • IT DEVELOPED A SEPARATE CHARACTER OF ITS OWN WITH SUCCESIVE INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL INFLUENCES TO BECOME A NEW LANGUAGE. • THE EPIC BEOWULF IS A GOOD ILLUSTRATION OF OLD ENGLISH IN A LITERARY FORM IN CLASS ASSIGNMENT: LOOK FOR BEOWULF IN ORDER TO SEE THE NATURE OF OLD ENGLISH OLD ENGLISH MODERN BERAN BEAR OFER OVER BEORHTE BRIGHT

16. THE BIRTH OF ENGLISH • IN SPITE OF THE INDEPENDENT CHARACTERISTICS THT IT HAS DEVELOPED, THE ENGLISH LANAGUAGE STILL SHOWS SOME COMMON ROOT WITH OTHER INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES AS SHOWN BY SIR WILLIAM JONES USING THE WORD “FATHER”: ENGLISH FATHER GREEK PATER LATIN PATER GERMAN VATER DUTCH VADER GOTHIC FADER OLD IRISH ATHEIR SANSKRIT PITAR

17. CHARACTERISTICS OF OLD ENGLISH PERIOD • FULL INFLECTIONAL SYSTEM SIMILAR TO THOSE OF LATIN AND GREEK • ADOPTION OF MANY WORDS OF LATIN ORIGIN BECAUSE OF THE CONTACT THAT THE THREE INVADING TRIBES-ANGLES, SAXON AND JUTES HAVE HAD WITH ROME • APART FROM THEIR LANGUAGES, THE THREE TRIBES ALSO BROUGHT WITH THEM THEIR RELIGION AND BY IMPLICATION THE NAMES OF THEIR gods. THE DAYS OF THE WEEK FOR INSTANCE DERIVED FROM ANGLO-SAXON gods AS FOLLOWS: • God of War woden (Wednesday) • God of Thunder Thunor or Thor (Thursday) • The Northern Venus Frig (Friday) • A minor war god Tiw (Tuesday) • A down goddess Eustra (Easter) • A supreme god or spirit Wyrd (fate)

18. THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY • ANOTHER CONGUEST THAT BROUGH ABOUT LINGUISTIC INFLUENCE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGIAGE IS A RELIGIOUS ONE IN 597. • POPE GREGORY THE GREAT SENT St. Augustine and forty Benedictine monks TO THE SOUTHEASTERN COAST OF ENGLAND TO PREACH CHRISTIANITY. • THESE MISSIONARIES BROUGHT WITH THEM CLASSICAL CIVILIZATION; EDUCATION AND THE LATIN LANGUAGE WHICH AT THAT TIME IS THE LANGUAGE OF THE UNIVERSAL CHURCH AS WELL AS THAT OF EDUCATED MEN. • THIS DEVELOPMENT LED TO THE TEACHING OF GREEK AND LATIN IN ENGLISH SCHOOLS. • THIS ALLOWED THE ANGLO-SAXON TO RECORD THEIR TRADITION AND TO REMEMBER POETRY THROUGH THE BARD. BOOKS WERE WRITTEN IN LATIN BUT TRANSLATED TO ENGLISH AND LATIN WORKS WERE ALSO TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH

19. INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY • THIS DEVELOPMENT BROUGHT ABOUT THE INTRODUCTION OF MANY THEOLOGICAL WORDS INTO ENGLISH • THIS DEVELOPMENT IS ALSO CREDICTED TO BE THE BEGINNING OF THE CHARACTERISTIC ENGLISH HABIT OF WORD-BORROWING (Francis, 1963, p. 9) HERE ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF ENGLISH WORDS WITH PURELY LATIN ORIGIN: Abbot Charlice disciple Pope temple altar chauster epistle deacon tunic alms Church minister synod monachus (monk) Anthem episcopus presbyter (bishop) (priest) devil (Latin diabolus and Greek diabolos) IN CLASS ASSIGNMENT –LOOK FOR OTHER WORDS OF LATIN ORIGIN IN ENGLISH

20. INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY • THROUGH THE INFLUENCE OF THE TWO CLASSICAL LANGUAGES IN EDUCATION THE GERMANIC ANGLO-SAXONS ACQUIRE THE CAPACITY TO ABSORB FOREIGN WORDS. • THE ENGLISH CULTURE AS WELL AS THE LANGUAGE IS SUBSEQUENTLY ENRICHED • THE ENRICHMENT ALSO DEMONSTRATE THE RECEPTIVE ABILITY THAT THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE HAS TOWARDS OTHER FOREIGN LANGUAGES

21. THE DANISH INVASION OF AD793 • THIS WAS A MILITARY INVASION • THE DANES CAME FROM THE COAST OF MODERN NORWAY AND THE DANISH PENINSULA • THEY WERE CULTURALLY AND LINGUISTICALLY RELATED TO THE ANGLO-SAXON AS THEY SPOKE VARIETIES OF THE GERMANIC LANGUAGE • THE CONQUEST RESULTED IN ENGLAND BEING RULED BY THE DANISH KINGS FROM 1014-1039 • THEY WERE CALLED VIKINGS AND OCCUPIED A FACTION OF THE COUNTRY-NORTHUMBRIA, THE EAST MIDLANDS AND THE WEST COAST OF IRELAND • THEY SOON SETTLED AND ACCEPTED THE ANLO-SAXON RELIGION AND LANGUAGE BUT WITH SOME ALTERATION. • THEIR INFLUENCES CAN BE SEEN IN SOME ENGLISH PLACE NAMES.

22. EXAMPLES OF DANISH LINGUISTIC INFLUENCE • Derby Rugby Danelaw and names ending –by, -thorp, -beck, -dale and –thwaite • Personal Names with the suffix-son, -es as in Johnson, Gibson, Jackson etc • Other words from the Danish invasion include words connected with warfare, the sea, law and administration • Some words such as : Wife, man, house, thing, summer, ride, mine hear, came, writer, think are common to both languages • ONE MAJOR FEATURE THAT EVOLVE FROM THESE CONTACTS IS THE EXISTENCE SIDE-BY-SIDE IN MODERN ENGLISH OF TWO FORMS OF THE SAME WORD AS ANGLO-SAXON, THE OTHER DANISH OR SCANDINAVIAN AS SEEN IN THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES

23. EXAMPLES • No/nay • From/fro • Rear/raise • Shriek/ screech THE EFFECT OF THESE KIND OF VARIANT FORMS HAS BEEN OBSERVED BY (Sheard, 1954, p. 118) “one important effect of the existence of variant forms side by side has been the possibility of making finer distinctions in meaning.” This makes it possible to differentiate skin from hide, rise and raise from rear. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE WAS ALSO ENRICHED BY RACIAL MIXTURE IN ADDITION TO LANGUAGE INFLUENCE.