Overview of Writing a Research Paper

1. Overview of Writing a Research Paper Presented by Cheryl Robbins MA in Cultural Management FCU Writing Center February 5, 2010

2. Getting Started Writing an academic research paper, whether a thesis, dissertation or for submission to a journal or conference is a major task. It is also an important one if you are to graduate, get promoted or be recognized for your research. So, give writing the time and attention it requires.

3. Getting Started Choosing a Topic What is an important topic in your field that has not been over-researched? How can your research contribute to that topic? Can you improve on a model, method or design? Can you develop a completely new design, model or method?

4. Getting Started Choosing a Topic (con’t) Would the Taiwan perspective on that topic be of importance/interest? Try to choose a topic that you are interested in, to help keep you motivated. Make sure that your topic is not too broad, especially if there is a limited word count.

5. Making a Timeline Good writing is 10% writing and 90% revising, so give yourself plenty of time for editing/revising and comments by others. Timeline should include finalizing a topic, doing research, writing the rough draft, revising and English-language editing.

6. Doing the Research Take comprehensive notes and make sure that you specify the reference for each piece of information you use. Add each reference to a reference list as you use it. Don’t wait until the paper is finished and then try to compile the reference list. Make sure to credit ALL information from other sources in your paper!

7. Doing the Research As you are doing your research, look for sentence patterns or writing styles that you can incorporate into your own work. But, DO NOT copy EXCEPT to directly quote someone. If you make a statement, you need evidence to support that statement. For example, if you write that, “Studies show that violent video games are not harmful to children,” then you need to discuss some of those studies. If there are a large number of studies only discuss the most important ones.

8. Doing the Research Although you should support all of your statements, you also need to include your opinions. Your own analysis of the problem and data are important and expected. Make sure that studies you discuss are relevant to your topic. Think quality rather than quantity when deciding whether to include a source in your work.

9. Making an Outline Making an outline will help you to organize your ideas. Expect that the outline will change over time. Outline should include the “theme” of your paper, as well as your plans for each section of the paper.

10. Title Should identify the contents of your paper clearly and briefly. Titles are usually in the form of one phrase (not a complete sentence) but can be in the form of two phrases separated by a colon. Titles should be attractive and create interest.

11. Title Examples: Weak: Change in older adults (too vague) Better: A framework for describing change among older adults Weak: The relationship of athletic participation to male violence in society (too many useless words) Better: Athletic participation and male violence

12. Title Business example: Are all smiles created equal? How emotional contagion and emotional labor affect service relationships Engineering example: Time-dependent flows in an emptying filling box

13. Abstract Summary of your research. The abstract and the conclusion are usually the two parts of a research paper that are read the most. This can be written last as sentences from each section of your paper can be copied and pasted here. Usually 250 words or less (check the journal for exact word count)

14. Abstract Should include: Background Aims of the study Methods Results Conclusions Value of the study Key words

15. Abstract Examples Example 1 (Business): In this study, the authors examine the effects of two facets of employee emotions on customers’ assessments of service encounters. [Background]

16. Abstract Examples Example 1 (con’t): Drawing on emotional contagion and emotional labor theories, they investigate the influence of the extent of service employees’ display of positive emotions and the authenticity of their emotional labor display on customers’ emotional states and, subsequently, on customers’ assessments of the service interaction and their relationship with the service provider. [Aims]

17. Abstract Examples Example 1 (con’t): To test the study hypotheses, 223 consumers participated in a simulated service encounter in which actors played the roles of service employees. In a 2 x 2 factorial design, the employees varied both the extent of their smiling behavior and their emotional labor display by engaging in surface or deep acting. [Methodology]

18. Abstract Examples Example 1 (con’t): The results show that the authenticity of employees’ emotional labor display directly affects customers’ emotional states. [Results]

19. Abstract Examples Example 1 (con’t): Contrary to expectations, the extent of employee smiling does not influence customer emotions, providing no support for the existence of primitive emotional contagion in service interactions. Furthermore, employee emotions exert an influence on customer outcomes that are of interest to marketers. [Conclusions] Source: Hennig-Thurau, T., et al. (2006). Are all smiles created equal? How emotional contagion and emotional labor affect service relationships. Journal of marketing, 70, 58-73.

20. Abstract Examples Example 2 (Engineering): We examine the transient buoyancy-driven flow in a ventilated filling box that is subject to a continuous supply of buoyancy. [Background]

21. Abstract Examples Example 2 (con’t): A theoretical model is developed to predict, as functions of time, the density stratification and the volume flow rate leading to the steady state. [Aims]

22. Abstract Examples Example 2 (con’t): Comparisons are made with the results of small-scale analogue laboratory experiments in which saline solutions and fresh water are used to create density differences. [Methodology]

23. Abstract Examples Example 2 (con’t): Two characteristic timescales are identified: the filling box time, proportional to the time taken for fluid from a plume to fill a closed box; and the draining box time, proportional to the time taken for a ventilated box to drain of buoyant fluid. The timescale for the flow to reach the steady state depends on these two timescales , which are functions of the box height H and cross-sectional area S, the “effective” opening area A*, and the strength, number and distribution of the buoyancy inputs. [Results]

24. Abstract Examples Example 2 (con’t): The steady-state flow is shown to be characterized by the ratio of these timescales. A feature of these flows is that for a certain steady-state flow, the depth of the buoyant upper layer may exceed, or “overshoot”, the steady layer depth during the initial transient. [Conclusions] Source: Kaye, N.B. and Hunt, G.R. (2004). Time-dependent flows in an emptying filling box. Journal of fluid mechanics, 520, 135-156.

25. Introduction The introduction should grab the reader’s attention. In the introduction: *Define any terms that you will use. *Describe the importance or significance of the study—why is this research worth doing? *Provide the background to the study. What is the problem?

26. Introduction *Defend the model—why did you use this particular system or design or animal? What are its advantages? *Why did you use a certain time period? *If your research is on some aspect of Taiwan, why is studying Taiwan important? *State the objectives (aims) or the hypotheses and explain why you chose those aims or hypotheses.

27. Introduction *Briefly explain the experimental design (i.e. how you conducted) and how it accomplished your study aims/objectives.

28. Introduction Example (Business) Two research streams that address the role of emotions in service encounters involve emotional contagion (Hatfield, Cacioppo, and Rapson 1994) and emotional labor (Hochschild 1983). “Emotional contagion is defined as the flow of emotions from one person to another, with the receiver “catching” the emotions that the sender displays (Schoenewolf 1990).

29. Introduction Example (Business con’t) In the context of service interactions, emotional contagion creates a ripple effect of emotions from service employees to customers (Pugh 2001; Tsai and Huang 2002; Verbeke 1997). In other words, employees who smile at customers may be contagious, in that they change the affective state of customers and thus influence customers’ perceptions and evaluations of the service encounter.

30. Introduction Example (Business con’t) “Emotional labor” refers to service employees’ display of expected emotions as a self-regulatory process (Hochschild 1983). When displaying expected emotions to customers, employees can choose between two acting strategies, surface or deep acting, which differ mainly in their extent of authenticity (Grandey 2003).

31. Introduction Example (Business con’t) The purposes of this study are twofold. First, we attempt to extend marketing theory by developing and testing a model of how employee emotions affect customers. Building on emotional contagion and emotional labor theories, we develop a model that enables us to test the differential effects of two facets of employee emotions—employee smiling behavior and authenticity of the emotional labor display—on changes in customer affect in a service setting.

32. Introduction Example (Business con’t) A second contribution of this study is our use of an experimental research design that enables us to assess the cause-effect nature of emotional contagion processes more precisely.

33. Literature Review The literature review is based on the assumption that knowledge accumulates, and that we learn from and build on what others have done. To explain prior research on a topic and how the current project is linked to it. To show where your study will fill in the gaps in the literature.

34. Literature Review Literature Review is different from the introduction in that it does not describe a problem, but rather the research that has been done regarding that problem. Literature Review can be part of the Introduction if a separate Literature Review section is not required.

35. Literature Review Format: Several authors have contended that privatization will mean higher costs and less access on the Internet (Brown 2005; Sedov 2006). Explain what other authors have said on that particular issue.

36. Literature Review Format (con’t): 3. Taking the contrary view, Maloff (2006) argued that fierce competition has the Internet on the edge of a new wave of cost reductions. 4. Then, describe what other authors with this point of view have said. 5. Move on to the next issue, as needed.

37. Literature Review Format (con’t): 6. At the end of the literature review, identify what remains to be researched in the area and describe how your study will fill that gap. **This is the first study to…. Or, this study will extend the research on [topic]….. Source: http://www.gsom.pu.ru/files/upload/mib/thesis/Masters_Thesis_Literature_Review.pdf

38. Literature Review (Engineering Example) Ventilated boxes were investigated by Linden, Lane-Serff & Smeed (1990) who looked at the transient draining of a box filled with fluid of buoyancy g’ relative to the external ambient. The fluid in the box is connected to the external ambient through vents in its top and base. They showed that the time taken to flush the box scaled on the box floor area and height, the area of the two vents and the initial buoyancy of the internal fluid.

39. Literature Review (Business Example) Despite the considerable amount of empirical research on service relationships and customer assessments on service quality, several aspects of the service interaction have remained unexplored. An area of particular interest is the role of emotions in service encounters.

40. Methodology The type of data used. How the data were gathered. How the data were analyzed. Explanation and verification of models. Proposed design and verification of the design.

41. Methodology (Engineering Example) We can compare our model for the transient flow ((2.12) and (2.13)) with that of Linden et al. (1990) by looking at the steady-state solution. In the steady state, both time-derivative terms are zero and it is possible to solve for the buoyancy of the upper layer: [eq. 2.16] and then the layer thickness [eq. 2.17].

42. Methodology (Engineering Example) The experiments were performed in a visualization tank of cross section 1.25m x 1.25m that was filled to a depth of 1.5m with fresh water. A clear Perspex box of cross section 0.5m x 0.5m and height 0.2m was immersed in the visualization tank. A number of circular holes (18 of 3 cm diameter and 26 of 5 cm diameter) in the top and bottom of the box could be opened or closed by removing or adding plugs.

43. Methodology (Business Example) Participants in the experiment were undergraduate and graduate students from various non-business schools of a medium-sized university. The final sample contained data from 223 participants, 46.8% of whom were women. The mean age of the respondents was 23.5 years (SD=3.2); ages ranged from 18 to 48 years.

44. Results The purpose of a results section is to present your findings. Make this section a completely objective report of the results and save all interpretation for the discussion.

45. Results There are two types of data: converted and raw. Converted data are data that have been analyzed, usually summarized, and presented in such a way that only the information important to the objectives of the study is presented. Raw data refer to results of individual replicate trials, individual observations, chart records, and other information.

46. Results Raw data are not usually included in your results. In the text, describe your results, pointing the reader to observations that are most important and relevant.

47. Results Illustrate your findings, if appropriate, with figures and tables. Do not present the same data in a different way. For example, if the data are plotted on a graph, don't include a table of the data as well.

48. Results (Business Example) As Tables 2 and 3 show, the extent of employee smiling has no significant effect on customer positive affect, but the authenticity of the emotional labor display by employees has a significant effect. The nature of this effect is in the expected direction: Employees who express authentic emotions by engaging in deep acting facilitate customer positive affect to a much greater extent than do those who display inauthentic emotional labor by engaging in surface acting.

49. Results (Engineering Example) Two main sets of data were obtained from our experiments: interface heights (peak and steady state) and time taken to reach the peak and steady-state heights. These are shown in Figures 14 to 17.

50. Results (Engineering Example) For sufficiently large opening areas (m<1) a different flow regime was observed. Instead of the hydrostatic two-layer stratification modeled, the interface in the region below the open vents (the left-hand side of the box) was broken up and mixed by the jets of ambient fluid flowing through the vents. The interface on the right-hand side of the box, away from the openings, was also unstable, with waves persisting over the course of the entire experiment.

51. Figure Legends The caption with any figure or table should include all relevant information such as the results of statistical tests (e.g. level of significance), and explanations of abbreviations, etc. Figure captions are usually in present tense.

52. Figure Legends Engineering Examples: Figure 12. A schematic diagram of the ventilated box used in the experiments, showing the openings and the plume source. [Diagram] Figure 15. Theoretical and experimental values of Tss, the time taken for the interface to initially reach the steady-state height. [Graph]

53. Figure Legends Business Examples: Figure 1: A conceptual model of employee and customer emotions in service interactions. [Diagram] Figure 2: Design of the video consulting store. [Photo caption]

54. Discussion Provide an interpretation of your results and support for them using evidence from your study and from the literature. The significance of findings should be clearly described. Do not simply re-state the results. This is the time to include your own thoughts.

55. Discussion Are your results consistent or inconsistent with previous results? If consistent, what is the theory that is supported. If inconsistent, why? Was your hypothesis supported or not supported? What strategies can be developed from your results? Suggest future directions for research, such as how the methods might be modified to achieve another objective.

56. Discussion Business example: Our findings provide support for the affect-as-information theory, which links customer emotions to satisfaction (Schwartz and Clore 1988); the results show that both the customer’s postencounter emotional state and change in positive affect lead to increased customer satisfaction.

57. Discussion Business example: In terms of managing frontline employees, the provision of authentic feeling is a far more challenging task than simply smiling at customers. Such strategy may require increased managerial emphasis on identifying and hiring talented and qualified frontline employees. Managers also may need to provide additional training for frontline staff that teaches them how to engage in deep acting.

58. Discussion Engineering example: Looking at the timescales (Figures 15-17), we again see that there is poor agreement between theory and experiment due to the different flow regime observed. Two main reasons for these discrepancies are given, both linked with the very initial transients and associated mixing which are not accounted for in the model.

59. Limitations Normally described in the Discussion. In some cases, may be included in Methodology. Limitations describe any potential biases or factors that limit the results of your study. These can include sample size, time period, inability to control certain factors, etc.

60. Limitations Engineering example: Although our model ventilated box allowed for m values of up to m=35, the volume of the visualization tank restricted the time over which we were able to run experiments.

61. Limitations Engineering example: In a few experiments weak background motion in the visualization tank produced a discoloring of the background due to mixing with the lower layer. However, this mixing was determined to have negligible effect on the dynamics.

62. Limitations Business example: Although our findings expand the extant knowledge on emotions in service encounters, we recognize several limitations that must be taken into account when generalizing our results. The design of our experiment provides insight into the transfer of employee emotions in one specific service domain—an innovative video rental service—but it remains unclear whether findings would be similar for other services. Another limitation is that we focus on positive emotions because they are most relevant (and desired) in the service delivery context. However, similar ripple effects may occur for negative emotions.

63. Conclusion The conclusion is one of the most valuable parts of the research paper. Analyze and evaluate your main points for your reader. Do not just repeat the information in your paper. No actual new information is introduced in the conclusion. The conclusion is the "original" contribution you offer in your paper. It shows the value of your research.

64. Conclusion Make your conclusion strong. This is where you show your expertise. Do not use “suggest” and “may” in the same sentence.

65. Conclusion Business example: This study illustrates that the emotions displayed by frontline employees are an important driver of the relationships between service employees and customers. The transfer of positive emotions from employees to customers can enable firms to establish high levels of customer-employee rapport, customer satisfaction, and future loyalty intentions, all key objectives of relationship marketing.

66. Conclusion Engineering example: The experimental results showed good agreement with our theoretical predictions for m>1. However, below this value, the finite thickness of the outflow from the plume and the large volume flow rate through the box meant that a constant thickness layer was measured and found to be independent of m. This constant-thickness regime has not previously been identified due to a lack of experimental results for small m. Although we have identified this new flow regime, more work is required to fully understand this behavior.

67. References APA: psychology, education, and other social sciences. MLA: literature, arts, and humanities. AMA: medicine, health, and biological sciences. Chicago: used with all subjects in the "real world" by books, magazines, newspapers, and other non-scholarly publications. For my Master’s program in cultural management, the Harvard system was used.

68. Let’s compare APA and Chicago systems In the text of the paper: APA: *During the turbulent 1960s, science fiction programs on television reflected the public’s attitudes toward the older generation (Hodges, 2000). *Hodges (2000) discussed how, during the turbulent 1960s, science fiction programs on television reflected the public’s attitudes toward the older generation.

69. Let’s compare APA and Chicago systems Chicago: (uses endnotes) In text: Nathan Bedford Forrest’s troops numbered about 1,500 men.1

70. Let’s compare APA and Chicago systems APA: Reference list in alphabetical order according to author’s last name. Chicago: End notes listed by number (1, 2, 3…) as they appear in the text.

71. Let’s compare APA and Chicago systems Journal article: APA: Devine, P.G. & Sherman, S.J. (1992). Intuitive versus rational judgment and the role of stereotyping in the human condition: Kirk or Spock? Psychological Inquiry, 3(2), 153-159. Chicago: Wilcox, Rhonda V. 1991. Shifting roles and synthetic women in Star trek: The next generation. Studies in Popular Culture 13 (2):53-65.

72. Let’s compare APA and Chicago systems Book: APA: Okuda, M. & Okuda, D. (1993). Star trek chronology: The history of the future. New York, NY: Pocket Books. Chicago: Okuda, Michael, and Denise Okuda. 1993. Star trek chronology: The history of the future. New York: Pocket Books.

73. Let’s compare APA and Chicago systems Website: APA: Epsicokhan, J. (2004, February 20). Confessions of a closet trekkie. Retrieved October 12, 2009, from Jammer Reviews website: http://www.jammersreviews.com/articles/confessions.php Chicago: Lynch, Tim. 1996. Review of DS9 trials and tribble-ations. Psi Phi: Bradley’s Science Fiction Club. http://www.bradley.edu/campusorg/psiphi/DS9/ep/503r.html (accessed October 8, 2007).

74. References Since there are many reference styles, it is very important to check the style guides of the journal to which you want to submit or to ask your teacher which style is most appropriate for your field.

75. References From the style guide of the Journal of Finance (http://www.afajof.org/journal/submission.asp) References appear at the end of the paper. They can be single spaced and not smaller than 10pt font size. References to publications in the text should appear as follows: "Jensen and Meckling (1976) report that..." or "(Jensen and Meckling (1976))." At the end of the manuscript, the complete list of references should be as follows:For monographs: Fama, Eugene F., and Merton H. Miller, 1972. The Theory of Finance (Dryden Press, Hinsdale, IL.).

76. References From the style guide of The Journal of Finance (con’t): For contributions to collective works:Grossman, Sanford J., and Oliver D. Hart, 1982, Corporate financial structure and managerial incentives, in John J. McCall, ed.: The Economics of Information and Uncertainty (University of Chicago Press). For periodicals: Jensen, Michael C., and William H. Meckling, 1976, Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure, Journal of Financial Economics 3, 305-360. 

77. Verb tense Use of the wrong verb tense can confuse the reader as to what facts are already known and what was newly discovered in the actual study that is the subject of the paper.

78. Verb tense (con’t) As a rule, use past tense to describe events that have happened. Such events include procedures that you have conducted and results that you observed. Use present tense to describe generally accepted facts.

79. Verb tense examples “Fully confined” plumes were examined by Baines & Turner (1969). In a filling box the plume rises to the top of the box and spreads out laterally to form a density interface between the plume outflow and the ambient fluid. A salt solution was supplied to the box via a nozzle located in the center of the top face… A schematic of the experimental setup is shown in Figure 12.

80. Verb Tense Examples (con’t) Study participants received a questionnaire just before they entered the video rental store, which included four items from Brief and colleagues’ (1988) job affect scale to measure preencounter customer positive affect. We report the means, standard deviations and correlation coefficients of all variables in Table 1.

81. Other Style Issues There should be good flow and good logic (connection of ideas, proper organization of ideas) while writing with the goal of being concise. These are the factors that make up a good research paper.

82. Other Style Issues Transitions Words and phrases that serve as bridges from one idea to the next, one sentence to the next, or one paragraph to the next. You don't need a transition between every idea or every sentence, but it is a good idea to use a transition between each paragraph.

83. Other Style Issues Examples of transitions (con’t): Time: After, afterward, before, then, once, next, last, at last, first, second, etc., at first, formerly, rarely, usually, finally, soon, meanwhile, at the same time, for a minute, hour, day, etc., during the morning, day, week, etc., later, ordinarily, to begin with, generally, subsequently, previously, in the meantime, immediately, eventually, concurrently, simultaneously.  Space: At the left, at the right, in the center, on the side, along the edge, on top, below, beneath, under, around, above, over, straight ahead, at the top, at the bottom, surrounding, opposite, at the rear, at the front, in front of, beside, behind, next to, nearby, in the distance, beyond, in the forefront, in the foreground, within sight, out of sight, across, under, nearer, adjacent, in the background. 

84. Other Style Issues Examples of transitions (con’t): Concession: Although, at any rate, at least, still, even though, granted that, while it may be true, in spite of.  Similarity: Similarly, likewise, in like fashion, in like manner, analogous to.  Emphasis: Above all, indeed, truly, of course, certainly, surely, in fact, really, in truth, again, besides, also, furthermore.  Details: Specifically, especially, in particular, to explain, to list, to enumerate, in detail, namely, including. 

85. Other Style Issues Examples of transitions (con’t): Examples: For example, for instance, to illustrate, in other words, as an illustration, in particular.  Consequence: So that, with the result that, thus, consequently, hence, accordingly, for this reason, therefore, since, due to, as a result, in other words, then.  Summary: Therefore, finally, consequently, thus, in short, in conclusion, in brief.  Suggestion: For this purpose, to this end, with this in mind, with this purpose in mind.

86. Other Style Issues Transition examples: *Therefore, we conclude that employees’ emotional displays affect customers’ emotional states…Next, we tested all elements of our conceptual model… *The PLS results support most of our hypotheses about the inner model relationships and provide convergent validity for the findings of the two-way repeated measures ANOVA (see Table 4). Specifically, our results show….

87. Other Style Issues Do not use subjective wording: Subjectivity refers to feelings, opinions, etc. Wrong: We felt that the fixative was bad, because we had difficulty finding flagella on our cells. Right: The percentage of cells with flagella was inversely proportional to the time they spent in fixative, suggesting that the fixative was causing cells to shed flagella.

88. Other Style Issues Don’t use adjectives such as huge, incredible, wonderful, exciting, etc. These are subjective. For example, "the mitochondria showed an incredibly large increase in oxygen consumption when we added uncoupling agent." Your definition of incredible might be different from that of someone else. It is much better to use an objective expression, such as "Oxygen consumption was five fold greater in the presence of uncoupler."

89. Other Style Issues Make sure to specify the singular and plural (for nouns and in the sentence structure) The market shows increased price for grain. The market shows increased prices for grain. The markets show increased prices for grain. [Which one do you mean?]

90. Other Style Issues Be careful about using “it” or “they”. Make sure that the identity of “it” and “they” is clear. When talking about research implications, don’t use “it”, use “this”. Example: This indicates that this model is appropriate for this application.

91. Other Style Issues Comparisons Always be clear about what you are comparing. Make sure that the comparison words are consistent: e.g. higher and lower, less and more, larger and smaller, etc.

92. Other Style Issues Comparisons *The wood board is thicker than the plastic board. *In comparing the thicknesses of the boards, there is a higher value for the wood board than for the plastic board.

93. Other Style Issues Comparison Examples: *The pressure difference between the upper and lower levels on the inside is less than the pressure difference between the upper and lower levels on the outside. *Comparing the steady-state interface heights it is clear that the line plume produces a deeper layer than the equivalent-strength point-source plume.

94. FCU Writing Center What it is: Available only to FCU graduate students and faculty. A native English-speaker editor works with you one-on-one to edit your paper and to point out areas for improvement.

95. FCU Writing Center Appointments are highly recommended and can be made by calling extension 2319 or visiting the Writing Center at 106, Administration Building II.

96. FCU Writing Center Each appointment is 50 minutes and multiple appointments can be made per week as time permits. Remember: If you have a deadline to complete your paper, so do many others. So, plan ahead.

97. FCU Writing Center It may not be possible to finish editing your paper in one session, especially if it requires many changes or if the editor has to clarify the meaning many times. You must have at least basic English writing skills to make use of the FCU Writing Center. We do not teach basic writing skills. We help you to improve on the skills that you already have.

98. FCU Writing Center It is important that you bring your own work in person: If there is a question about meaning, only the author will be able to answer it. The Writing Center offers people the chance to improve their writing skills. This cannot be done through a third party.

99. FCU Writing Center Bring your paper printed out on A4 paper double-spaced or have it saved on your laptop. Do not submit your paper before your appointment.

100. The End Thanks for your attention. Any ?????’s