Please remember…

1. Please remember… • Cell phones off • No chatting during the lecture THANK YOU!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

2. Chapter 7COGNITION: THOUGHT

3. Cognitive Psychology – LOBJ 7.1 • The study of the overlapping fields of • Learning • Perception • Memory • Thought How do we attend to, acquire, transform, store and retrieve knowledge? THINKING!!!

4. Concept Formation – LOBJ 7.2 • Concepts: • Mental categories used to classify events and objects according to common propertiesOne of these things is not like the others; one of these things doesn’t belong. • Concept Formation: • The way people organize and classify events and objects, usually to solve problems (+/- instances) A bird is a bird is a bird??? Prototypical bird…

5. Classification: Separating dissimilar events, finding commonalities, and then grouping similar items together “fuzzy concepts” Concepts with unclear boundaries Defined by using prototypes (best examples) Concept Formation

6. Is this furniture?

7. Is this Furniture?

8. Is this Furniture?

9. Is this Furniture?

10. Is this furniture?

11. Is this furniture?

12. Concept Formation and Stereotyping • Our natural tendency to form concepts and categorize leads to stereotyping • Eg. Sexism, racism, ageism • Only solution is to educate

13. How do we solve new Problems? • Learning Theory • Trial-and-error • Gestalt Theory • Insight • Information-Processing Theory • Purposeful registration and retrieval of information. Pay attention in lab this week!!! p.245-249 / LOBJ 7.3, 7.4 & 7.6

14. Reasoning & Decision Making

15. Reasoning = Purposeful process Allows us to: (a) generate logical ideas (b) evaluate situations (c) reach conclusions Formal (academic) vs. informal (real world) REASONING LOBJ 7.7

16. REASONING Formal • Information provided • Method available (e.g. algorithm) • One correct answer • Recipe for a cake Informal • Information often missing • No method • Multiple solutions • Playing poker

17. LOGIC - LOBJ 7.7 Logic: system of reasoning used to reach valid conclusions or make inferences Tools • Deductive Reasoning • General to specific • Inductive Reasoning • Specific to general

18. DECISION MAKING – LOBJ 7.7 • Decision making: assessing and choosing among alternatives • Trivial or complex Breakfast? Marriage?

19. Reasoning Arriving at a good rational solution Self-generation of the options followed by choosing the best one Decision Making Arriving at a good rational solution Narrowing options presented to you So how are they different?

20. Uncertainty: Estimating Probabilities • Decisions can be based on:(a) formal logic (b) hypothesis, testing (c) an educated guess Educated Guess: making a decision based on knowledge from past experiences Probabilities or Percentages

21. Psychological Factors – LOBJ 7.8 Problems with Estimating Probabilities • Because of their mood or lack of attention, people may act irrationally, ignore key data, and make bad decisions • But you can learn to make better decisions

22. Barriers to Good Decision MakingLOBJ 7.9 Gambler’s Fallacy: The belief that an event is more likely to occur if it has not recently occurred. “I have to win eventually.”

23. Barriers to Good Decision Making Belief in small numbers Decision based on a small number of observations Anecdotal Evidence

24. Barriers to Good Decision Making Availability heuristic Judging the probability of an event based on how easy it is to think of examples of it Media overplay

25. Overconfidence Being so committed to one’s own ideas that one is often more confident than correct Loud, bold and wrong “Don’t cloud the issue with facts.” Barriers to Good Decision Making

26. Barriers to Good Decision Making Confirmation bias People cling to beliefs despite contradictory evidence We find what we look for.

27. Barriers to Good Decision Making Fallacy of Composition: Belief that what is true of the parts is also true of the whole All the players are good, but the team is awful.

28. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

29. Artificial Intelligence - definition • Artificial intelligence – a field that draws on concepts from both cognitive psychology and computer science to develop artificial systems that display some aspects of human-like intelligence

30. Limitations of AI • Well-defined and ill-defined problems • Computers do not define their own problems • Lack of common sense • computers do not have a referential context in which to interpret situations • Lack of creativity • Computers are programed by people and can not function independent of their programs

31. Neural Networks • Various bits of information are stored in different parts of the brain • A convergence zone is needed to mediate and organize the information located in various areas of the brain

32. Neural Networks: Hierarchical Network Model • Assumes a hierarchy in which a particular word is stored under the higher order category that subsumes it, which in turn is stored under a yet higher category • EXAMPLE:

33. Neural Networks: Parallel distributed processing • parallel distributed processing (PDP) • PDP involves many operations taking place at the same time in various parts of the brain