Towards an epistemic approach to research evaluation in Social Sciences and Humanities

1. Towards an epistemicapproach to researchevaluation in Social Sciences and Humanities OST Paris, 23 May 2018 Andrea Bonaccorsi University of Pisa

2. First part Theoreticalissues in researchassessment in SSH Can wereach an agreementin a SSH scientificcommunity with respect to a set of qualitycriteria? If yes, isitpossible to formulate thesecriteria in a reflexive and declarative way, so thatthey can be subject to inter-subjectiveverification and can be appliedappropriately by a subset of the community (for example by experts)? If yes, isitpossible to summarize the qualitative judgmentinto a quantitative measure?

3. Can wereach an agreementin the scientific community with respect to a set of qualitycriteria? • NO • epistemicpluralism • schoolconflicts • researchassessmentisinevitably a matter of power • Incommensurability of researchresults (idiographictradition in Greekphilosophy) • threat to researchfreedom • YES • paradigmaticconflicts do notprevent the convergence on agreedqualitycriteria (e.g. methodologicalcriteria in History) • qualitycriteria include data collectionmethods (e.g. Psychology) • self-reflection on methodologicalcriteria in SSH is a manifestation of vitalityand a predictor of the attractiveness of the field for doctoralstudents and postdocresearchers(Lamont, How professorsthink)

4. If yes, isitpossible to formulate thesecriteria in a reflexive and declarative way, so thatthey can be subject to inter-subjectiveverification and can be appliedappropriately by a subset of the community (for example by experts)? • NO • qualityjudgments are inevitablyidiosincratic and create a tacitknowledge base, whichcannot be separated from the personsthatownthatknowledge (personal knowledge: Polanyi) • consequently, the onlypossibility for a fair evaluationis to delegate it to representatives of scientificcommunities (in particular, electivebodies or scientificcommunities) • YES • tacitknowledgeisalways a source of power • inter-subjectivevalidationis a condition for the validity of scientificknowledge (Ziman, Real science) • «the onlyexperimentthatisworthis the writtenexperiment» (Bacone, Novum Organum): writtencommunicationisessential to science to allowvalidation from researchersthatcannotwitness the experimenthic et nunc

5. If yes, isitpossible to summarize the qualitative judgmentinto a quantitative measure? • NO • qualitative and quantitative judgments are logicallyincommensurable • quantificationis a powerstructure: a dispositif (Foucault) or a weapon to fight in the actionfield (Bourdieu) • quantificationis a neoliberaldevice to establishhierarchical relations in the capitalistsystem (the «new reason of the world»: Dardot and Laval, 2009) • quantificationis a voluntaryslavery (Gori 2011; 2013; Supiot, 2015), evaluationis a tiranny (Del Rey, 2013) • YES (with caveat) • quantitication (commensuration) hasbeen an instrument of modernStates to reduce traditionalsources of power, based on idiosincraticknowledge, and establishcitizenrights (e.g. universalhealth, welfare systemsbased on demographic information) • recentdevelopments in analyticalphilosophy and practicalreasonsuggestthat the transformation and aggregation of qualitative judgmentsintomeasuresispossible, givenrelativelylooserequisites (contrary to the tradition from Arrow’stheorem) • the conditions for aggregationrefer to the building of a common languagethatdescribes in qualitative terms the judgments of people

6. An epistemic model of reception of evaluation in SSH • My thesis • Disciplines in SSS perceive, receive and react to evaluation in a negative or positive way, and with differentintensity, according to • The history of theirinstitutionalizationasacademicdisciplines • emergence by internaldifferentiation • emergence by conflict with a dominant discipline • The epistemicorientation • idiographic • nomothetic • The acceptance or reject of the twodominanttraditions of epistemology in the XX century • logicalpositivism • post-structuralism

7. Emergence of disciplines • Scientificknowledgeemerges via continuousprocesses of branching and specialization • Disciplines emerge followingtwodistinctdynamics • Epistemicdynamics: new objects of inquiry, researchquestions, methods • Institutionaldynamics: contextthatfavors the separate institutionalization of a new discipline • In the institutionalization stage wewitness strong, evenviolent, controversies, on boundaries (Gyerin): • between science and non-science • betweendisciplines • Afteracademicinstitutionalization, disciplinespreserve the newlyacquiredboundaries via a variety of instruments (scientific societies, journals, conferences, book series) and «keepmemory» of the initialconflicts. • Epistemiccontroversieshave an institutional correlate (curricula, content of courses, readinglists). • Institutionalization by internaldifferentiation: Philology, History, Economics • Institutionalization by conflcit with a dominant discipline: Anthropology (vs Sociology), Literarycritics (vs Philology), English studies (vs canon-basedCriticism)

8. Epistemicorientation

9. Epistemologicalchallenges in the XX century • Positivism(Reichenbach, Hempel, Ayer) • truthascorrespondencebetweenpropositions and facts • logicalempiricism • scientificknowledgeisbased on explanatorypropositionsthat take the form of coveragelaws (lawlikeregularities) • need for mathematicallanguage • need for causalmodeling an rigorousinferentialmethods (randomizedexperimentsasgoldenrule) • Post-structuralism(Derrida, Foucault, Lacan, Barthes, Baudrillard) • facts do notexist, onlynarratives (Nietzsche) • truthdoesnotexist, onlylinguisticconventions • powerstructures use hiddenmechanism (dispositifs) in order to normalize the behavior of subjectsthrough the interiorization of categoriesthat are interpretedasnatural • Knowledge hierarchieshave no foundation Acceptance (partial or complete) of logical positivism: Political science (in part), Economics, Psychology (in part) Strong reject of post-structuralism: History Acceptance of post-structuralism: Literary critic, English studies, Anthropology (in part)

11. Part 2 • Whatwe (already) knowaboutpublicationpatterns in SSH and whatweneed to know • Citations are made to sourcesthat are older (on average) (only 5-30% last fiveyears) • Citations are close to zero for a certainperiodafterpublication • Good share of citations are to non-living authors • Books are more important in scientific production (35-50% min) • Books contain more citations • Citations in books are more interdisciplinary • Citations in books are to a largertypology of sources (e.g. dissertations, catalogues, archivalmaterial, fiches, cartography, images etc.) • Citations cover a widerrange of motivationsthan in hard science (rhetorical/argumentationfunctions)

12. Open issuesafter the Book Citation Index • Lack of standardization of references to edited books • Lack of cumulative citationcounts from differenthierarchicallevels • Books ascollection of (alreadypublished) articles • New editions • Posthumous co-authorship • Consequences • Lack of normalization • Citations from books and to books cannot be treated in the same way ascitations from articles and to articles • «Citationprocesses of books havenotyetbeensufficientlystudied» (Gorraiz, Purnel and Glanzel, 2013)

13. Open issuesafterPublisher rating (Spain) • Large variability in quality of books and book serieswithin the catalogues of publishers • Business model of academicpublishers • Need to control for «haloeffects» in reputationsurveys • Lack of empiricalevidenceabout the correlationbetweenpublisher rating and peerreview-basedassessment of individual books • - evidenceavailable in the case of journal rating • Bonaccorsi et al. (2015) F1000 • Ferrara and Bonaccorsi (2016) Res Eval • Consequences • - Difficult to utilize in researchassessment

14. On the origins of reputation • In the academic domain, the reputationisestablishedthrough the impact and quality of scientificresearch. • In hard sciences and technologies the reputationisdirectlyrelated to the number and importance of citationsreceived. • Scientistsroutinelykeeptrack of theirindividualindicatorsrelated to • Number of citations • Weightednumber of citations • «An articleislargelycitedonlyifitisused by a large number of scientists» (Cronin, 2005). Fewexceptions: • Mathematics (= fewarticles per year, with fewcitations) • «sleeping beauties» (van Raan, 2004) (= importantdiscoveriesthat come to be citedonlyaftermanyyears)

15. On the origins of reputation/2 • In the SSH (with the exception of Economics and Psychology), on the contrary: • Importantrole of books • books take more time to be produced • citations can take manyyears to grow • normalization of citationsdifficult • Language • role of nationallanguageasresearch medium • multilinguism • Audience • largerrole for interaction with general public • criticaljunctionbetweenresearch in Humanities and cultural identities (history, language, literature, art) Does this situation prevent a scientific analysis of knowledge production and of the formation of reputation in SSH?

16. Whatweneed to know • 1. Creative role of citations • In hard sciencescitations are mandated by the cumulative nature of knowledge: authors are forced to quote state-of-the-art knowledge (and theirauthors) in order to substantiate the claimthattheirdiscoveries are original. • In Humanities (and in part of Social Sciences) citations are creative: • citationsestablish a relation between an object and a field/author/issuepreviouslyunconnected with the object • citations come in clusters, notisolated • after new citationshavebeenintroduced, theyneed to be accepted by the scientific community • after a time lag, theybecome standard

17. Frequency of occurrence of the word «paradigm» in books in English Thomas Kuhn (1962) The structure of scientificrevolutions Source: elaboration from Google Ngram Viewer

18. Frequency of occurrence of the word «tacitness» in books in English Nelson- Winter (1982) An evolutionarytheory of economicchange introduce the notion of «tacitknowledge» quoting Michael Polanyi (1958) Personal knowledge Source: elaboration from Google Ngram Viewer

19. Eduard Manet Le Déjunersurl’erbe 1862-63

20. The judgment of Paris Marcantonio Raimondi (1515) after a drawing by Raphael

21. What we need to know 2. Relation between volume and quality of publications The reputation in hard sciences is built upon the accumulation over time of citations from colleagues. There is a (probabilistic) relation between the overall volume of scientific production and the citations received. Do we see a similar relation for scholars in SSH?

22. Averagenumber of book chapters and journal articles in the 2002-2012 decade significantlydifferbetweenthosereceiving the Habilitation and thosenotreceivingit Candidatesreceiving the Habilitation Source: elaboration from Bonaccorsi, Costantini and Setti (2016)

23. Averagenumber of journal articles in A-ratedjournals in the 2002-2012 decade significantlydifferbetweenthosereceiving the Habilitation and thosenotreceivingit

24. Averagenumber of books in the 2002-2012 decade doesnotdifferbetweenthosereceiving the Habilitation and thosenotreceivingit

25. Whatweneed to know 3. Scientificcommunicationbefore the publication Books in SSH (mainly in the Anglosaxoncontext, muchless in Europe) have an extensiveintroductorysection of acknowledgments. Thesereflect the extensivepractice of submittingmanuscripts, atvariousstages of maturity, to colleagues and friends for comments. Theyalsoreflect the Anglosaxonpractice of departmentalseminars («brownbag» seminars), which are mandatory by tradition and are seldommissed by the faculty. Reputationiscreatedafteracknowledgmentsreceived by establishedauthors (Anthony Grafton).

26. What we need to know 4. Relation between academic reputation and social visibility Scholars in SSH are more likely engaged in activities that make them visible not only to the scientific community but to the larger public. With the advent of modern media and of social media the magnitude of the visibility that can be gained increased enormously. Does social and media visibility add or subtract from academic reputation? Is social and media visibility a complement or a substitute for academic reputation?

27. Whatis the relation betweenacademicreputation and social visibility? • Theory of social judgment(Alessandro Pizzorno, Il velo della diversità. Studi su razionalità e riconoscimento, Feltrinelli, 2007) • reputation • visibility • Tensions and conflictsbetween the twonotions. • Sociology of art • (MoniqueHeinich, De la visibilité, Gallimard, 2012) • building social visibilityrequiressustainedeffort • strategicmanoeuvering of presence/ absence • management of scarcity • active and daily management of opportunities

28. What do weneed to know • 5. Potential of new indicators in SSH • 5.1 Google Scholar • Moststudies compare GS with WoS and Scopus- theyusuallyfind GS has a largercoverage of SSH, lower (butrapidlyimproving) accuracy • Need to compare GS data with data from peerreview • First studies in History and Sociology • - Bonaccorsi, Ferrara & Ferrara (2016), in preparation • 5.2 Altmetrics • - Need to compare systematicallyusage data with data from peerreview

29. Conclusions • Towards a science of science in Humanities • Risk of marginalization of research in Humanities • Need to build a robust argument for research in Humanities • - not the usual argument about the economic impact in terms of turism, museums or cultural heritage • - not the usual call for more money • - but a full scale epistemological argument about the way in which valid scientific knowledge is produced in Humanities • - humans live by symbols- but symbols take a meaning only if there is historical continuity • - preserving historical continuity requires research • - without research in Humanities the ability to interpret meanings would be interrupted • Need to overcome the «fear of numbers» in SSH

30. Scienza politica • Dibattito anni ‘50 negli USA • tradizione qualitativa (Harvard: «ideas and institutions») • superamento della tradizione: (a) empirico- behavioristico (b) rationalchoice • adozione approccio quantitativo • modelli causali con controllo statistico • influenza di Giovanni Sartori nel dibattito politologico e costituzionale comparato • Posizioni epistemologiche • predominio logica inferenziale e controllo statistico • coesistenza di metodi qualitativi (case studies) e quantitativi (Goertz e Mahoney, A tale of twocultures) • Sostanziale accettazione di metodi quantitativi • costruzione di serie storiche • panel data set • studi comparativi a livello internazionale

31. APPENDIX (in Italian)

32. Sociologia • Sviluppi nei metodi di raccolta dei dati (seconda metà ‘900) • metodi quantitativi (inferenza statistica; modelli multi-livello) • metodi qualitativi (case studies, metodi etnografici) • mixedmethods • Superamento della opposizione metodi quantitativi-qualitativi • reciproco riconoscimento di legittimità • raffinamento continuo dei metodi • centralità del lavoro metodologico • Pluralismo paradigmatico a livello di modelli e teorie • necessità di una teoria dell’agente sociale (soggetto) • impossibilità di una teoria generale e completa della società di tipo diretto (causale) • assunzione di una pluralità di teorie inverse della società negli agenti sociali (Pierre Livet) • necessità di aggiustare e modificare continuamente la teoria della società alla luce dei dati (cumulatività dinamica) • Obiezioni alla valutazione non convincenti • internazionalizzazione • pluralismo • metodologia

33. Economia politica • Caso classico di emergenza di un paradigma dominante nelle scienze sociali (almeno a partire dalla fondazione di Econometrica) • Eppure • Esistenza di una mainstream non ha eliminato il pluralismo teorico e paradigmatico (economia evolutiva, neo-austriaca, neo-marxiana, istituzionalista) • Criteri di valutazione simili • Esistenza di top journal in tutte le comunità sufficientemente ampie e strutturate • Confronto sistematico sulle anomalie e sui risultati empirici

34. Discipline aziendali • Insufficienza di un serio dibattito metodologico • Dibattito sulla rilevanza (impatto sulle imprese) non agganciato al dibattito internazionale su teoria e pratica negli studi di management (Van de Ven, Starbuck) • Business schoolhanno adottato un modello di legittimazione fondato sulla ricerca scientifica • Rischio di irrilevanza sia teorica che pratica della tradizione aziendale italiana

35. Scienze giuridiche • Criteri di qualità della ricerca molto definiti (di tipo ermeneutico, sistematico, critico) • Pluralismo dottrinale, non paradigmatico e metodologico • Forti distinzioni di scuola • Inizio di internazionalizzazione (dovuto alla immediata applicabilità del diritto europeo in alcuni ambiti- sentenze dei giudici italiani già utilizzano materiale estero) • Intreccio con criteri di natura professionale

36. Storia • Condivisione di metodi di raccolta di dati • lavoro di archivio («goût d l’archive»: Farge, 1989) • teoria delle fonti • Storia della storiografia contemporanea • lavoro storico ha lo scopo di ricostruire i fatti «come sono avvenuti» (Leopold von Ranke) • critica del positivismo storico da parte di E.H Carr (1961) Whatishistory? – storia come analisi delle relazioni causali • l’interpretazione dello storico trova un limite insuperabile nella ricostruzione dei fatti, supportata da metodi di indagine robusti e condivisi • Social historye Cultural history • Sfida post-strutturalista • il dato storico è inattingibile • qualunque ricostruzione del dato storico che pretenda «oggettività» è ideologico e nasconde un disegno di dominio ideologico, ovvero di ricostruzione del passato allo scopo di governare il presente • Reazione della comunità degli storici e dei teorici della storiografia • - il dibattito prevalente rigetta la sfida post-strutturalista

37. Studi letterari/1 • Origine storica: filologia • Aspetti di metodo • ricostruzione del testo nella sua formulazione originaria • processo di riproduzione dei testi come fonte di errori tracciabili • metodo stemmatico (metodo di Lachmann)- ma origine Rinascimento italiano • lavoro filologico basato su criteri condivisi e tecniche rigorose • Emergenza degli studi letterari negli Stati Uniti • origine europea degli studi umanistici nelle prime università americane e in quelle create nel XIX secolo- cattedre di filologia in cui si insegnano latino e greco e le filologie europee • primi studi linguistici e di grammatica sulle lingue degli indiani d’America • discipline letterarie emergono in contrapposizione e autonomizzazione rispetto alla filologia • English Studiescome discipline basate sulla lettura di testi (reading), non sulla analisi filologica • metodo di insegnamento collegiale e interattivo (aula) • primato della interpretazione (ermeneutica) rispetto alla ricostruzione rigorosa della forma del testo • critica letteraria vs filologia

38. Studi letterari/2 Dibattito tra generalists e researchers (1875-1915) «Thereis no science of literature» «Literature in essenceis mere spirit» «You must experienceitratherthananalyzeittooformally» «Literatureis an instrumentthatopensourhearts to receive the experiences of great men and greatraces» Woodrow Wilson, Mere literature «Literatureis a mysterious and pervasive essencealways in itself beautiful, notalways so in the shapeswhichitinforms, buteventhen full of infinite suggestion». James Russell Lowell (1889) Cit. in Gerald Graff (1987) Professingliterature. An institutionalhistory. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press (p.88)

39. Studi letterari/3 • Dibattito sul canone letterario • antecedenti istituzionali: decisioni circa il Syllabus delle letture obbligatorie nei campus americani • pressione delle letterature di origine diversa dalla tradizione occidentale • istituzionalizzazione degli studi di minoranze: Black studies, Womenstudies, Post-colonialstudies • Interpretazione del canone • - «capitale culturale» nel senso di Bourdieu (Guillory, Cultural capital. The problem of literarycanonformation) • conflitto per la definizione dei confini e dei contenuti del «campo» come fonte di valore simbolico spendibile nella competizione sociale • assenza di criteri epistemici per la valutazione di qualità della critica letteraria • Morte dell’autore (Barthes, 1977); Cosa è un autore? (Foucault, 1977); Morte della letteratura (Kernan, 1990) • Dibattito culturale italiano • centralità tradizione filologica nella critica letteraria (Pasquali, Timpanaro, Contini, Barbi, Segre, Stussi) • continuità nella formazione di giovani studiosi con preparazione filologica • conflitti di scuola ad intensità inversamente proporzionale alla distanza temporale degli autori studiati rispetto alla critica letteraria

40. Storia dell’arte • Tradizione di analisi dei dati basata su metodi rigorosi (analisi degli stili formali, dati materiali, chimico-fisici, spettrografici) • Problemi di metodo a livello dei modelli teorici • attribuzione di singole opere (Berenson, Longhi) • - conflitto delle interpretazioni di attribuzione • (b) iconografia e iconologia (Panovsky) • Interpretazione delle opere d’arte alla luce dell’insieme di contenuti simbolici presenti all’epoca dell’opera e in epoche precedenti • ambito potenzialmente illimitato dei confronti con fonti letterarie e iconografiche ritenute rilevanti ai fini della interpretazione delle opere • Preziosi, Donald (1989) • Rethinking art history. Meditations on a coy science • New Haven and London, Yale University Press • Mansfield, Elisabeth (ed.) (2002) • Art history and itsinstitutions. Foundations of a discipline. • London, Routledge

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