Chapter 5

1. Chapter 5 Communicating Effectively

2. The Importance of Communication • Communication affects virtually every area of work. • Communication with employees about plant closings, performance appraisals, organizational goals, probable salary increases, and job changes, and even the date of the company picnic are essential to the proper functioning of the firm. • Organizations also must communicate effectively with parties outside the firm. • Much of managers’ time is spent communicating. Henry Mintzberg found 78% of CEOs’ time to be spent on communication-related activities involving direct contact with others.

3. Functions of Communication • Information Function. Communication provides information to be used for decision making. • Motivational Function. Communication encourages commitment to organizational objectives, thus enhancing motivation. • Control Function. Communication clarifies duties, authority, and responsibilities, thereby permitting control. • Emotive Function. Communication permits the expression of feelings and the satisfaction of social needs.

4. Focus on Management: Communicating After the Oklahoma City Bombing • The communication complex for Kerr-McGee Corp., an Oklahoma City-based oil and gas exploration company, is just two blocks from the site of the April 1995 bombing of the Murrah Federal Building. • After the initial bomb, it was thought that a second bomb was about to explode; Kerr-McGee was designated as part of the “crime scene.” • The designation brought many questions from employees. • Within minutes after the bombing, Kerr-McGee’s executive management group was transformed into a corporate communications team. About a dozen top executives combined with three members from the corporate communications staff to develop and implement strategic plans to let employees know what was going on. They used e-mails, public address announcements, a “calling tree,” a “command center,” and other methods to facilitate communication.

5. Message Barriers Sender Receiver Bridge of Meaning Steps: 1 2 3 Steps: 4 5 6 7 Develop Encode Transmit Idea Receive Decode Accept Use Feedback for Two-Way Communication The Communication Process (Fig. 5-1)

6. Communication Channel Dimensions • Capacity. The amount of information that can be sent through a channel in a given period of time without significant distortion. • Modifiability. The degree to which the rate of transmission can be varied. • Duplication. The use of subchannels to reiterate or elaborate on a message. • Immediacy. The speed at which a message can be transmitted.

7. Communication Channel Dimensions (Continued) • One-way vs. two-way flow. One-way communication gives a message without the opportunity for immediate feedback, while two-way communication allows the message recipient to ask questions and provide feedback. • Number of linkages. The degree to which the channel provides direct contact between a sender and the ultimate recipient, or involves intermediate linkages. • Appropriateness. To degree to which the channel matches the needs and characteristics of the message. • Richness. The potential information-carrying capacity of data.

8. One-Way Vs. Two-Way Communication Flow • One-way communication is faster than two-way. • Two-way communication is more accurate than one-way. • Receivers are more sure of themselves and make more correct judgments of how right or wrong they are with two-way communication. • The sender feels less secure in two-way communication. The message recipients can point out errors, interrupt the stream of thought, disagree, or otherwise challenge the sender. • Two-way communication is relatively noisy and disorderly. One-way communication appears neat and efficient to an outside observer, but the communication is often less accurate.

9. Selecting Channels • When sending messages, consider the characteristics we have just presented. • How much information must be transmitted? • How fast must information be transmitted? • Is feedback necessary? • Are certain channels unsuited to the nature of the message? • You may decide after weighing these factors that available channels must be somehow modified or that multiple channels are needed.

10. Communication Networks • Communication channels may be linked in a variety of ways to form communication networks. • These networks are used to structure the information flows among network members. • This involves decisions such as who should be “in the loop” to receive certain types of messages, and to whom they should be instructed to respond. • In making such decisions, you will determine who has direct and speedy access to information, who is most central in communication networks, who will be able to get information only after others have received it, and so on. • Communication networks influence decision quality, member satisfaction, and other outcomes.

11. Wheel Chain Y Circle Star Com-Con Communication Networks (Figure 5-2)

12. Communication Network Dimensions • With networks such as the chain and the circle, it may be necessary for a message to pass through multiple links to reach its destination. With the star and com-con networks, one link is sufficient. • The circle and star networks are decentralized -- everyone is as central as everyone else. The wheel and the com-con network have central members. • Relative centrality is the degree of centrality of an individual in a network. Network members with higher relative centrality tend to be more satisfied. • Centralization is a measure of the variability in member relative centralities. Centralized networks permit rapid decision making, but average member satisfaction is low. Centralized networks may be efficient for simple tasks, but decentralization is needed as task complexity and need for creativity increase.

13. Perceptual Factors Semantics Information Retention Distraction Misrepresentation Communication Barriers Barriers to Effective Communication

14. Communication Barriers: Semantics • Semantics, or code noise, occurs when the meaning of a message to the sender differs from its meaning to the recipient. • Too often, this may be the result of “jargon,” involving pretentious terminology or language specific to a particular profession or group. • Here are some examples of jargon relating to computers and the modern workplace: • Blamestorming: Discussing a project failure with coworkers. • PEBCAK: “Problem exists between chair and keyboard.” That is, an operator error. • Cube Farm: Rows of cubicles instead of private offices. • RTM: Read the manual.

15. Communication Barriers: Distraction, Misrepresentation, and Information Retention • Distraction, or psychological noise, occurs when a recipient does not understand the sender’s message because he or she is simply thinking about something else. • Misrepresentation may involve actual lying or subtly distorting information to the sender’s benefit. • Information retention often occurs because information is a valuable resource; those who control it are in positions of power. Some people may retain specific sorts of information to make themselves more necessary, may be in positions to decide how to channel information, or may have the ability to process information, sending only some of it along.

16. Communication Barriers:Perceptual Factors • Many perceptual errors are directly relevant to communication. • Stereotyping may cause us to ignore or distort the messages of people we have classified in certain ways. • Selective perception may cause us to ignore communication that conflicts with our beliefs and expectations. • Halo error may cause us to bias our evaluation of a message because of some unrelated characteristic of the sender. • Projection may lead us to infer information in a message we receive based on our own feelings. • Primacy and recency effects may cause us to give differing weights to various communications, depending on when we receive them.

17. Overcoming Communication Barriers • Feedback, repetition of messages, use of multiple channels, and simplified language may reduce problems due to semantics, selective perception and distraction. • Communication overload may be reduced by careful review of the material needed by the recipient and by use of the exception principle. • Short-circuiting may be reduced through careful consideration of who has a “need to know.” Electronic data-processing techniques that automatically route messages to certain people may also help. • Information retention and misrepresentation may require tightened formal controls or organizational audit groups, or they may require the opposite -- fewer controls and more trust. • Things that lessen one problem are likely to worsen another.

18. Written Communications • Written communication is required when the action called for is complex and must be done in a precise way. • It also provides a permanent form of record keeping and can reach a large number of people easily. • Written communication may be used for communicating downward or upward in the organization.

19. Downward Communication • Downward communication involves messages from senders relatively high in the organizational structure to receivers in lower positions. • Downward communication may be used: • to give instructions • to provide information about policies and procedures • to give feedback about performance • for indoctrinating or motivating

20. Upward Communication • Upward communication involves communication from sources in lower-level positions to receivers in higher positions. • Upward communication is often used: • to give information on achievement or progress • to point out problems that are being encountered • to pass on ideas for improvement of activities • to provide feelings on work and nonwork activities

21. Downward Communication Letters and Memos Manuals Handbooks Company Newsletters Suggestion System Grievances Attitude Surveys Upward Communication Some Forms of Upward and Downward Communications

22. Focus on Management:Pathfinders at Lloyd’s TSB • A merger of Lloyds and TSB created a single British bank with 77,000 members and 15 million customers. • The “new” bank won a Marketing Society Award for the care it took to launch and explain the merged organization to its employees. • It ran a comprehensive and sustained internal program, highlighted by a live event called “Your Life. Your bank.” • Staff nominated 5,000 colleagues to act as brand ambassadors, called “pathfinders,” whose role was to attend the event, absorb the key messages, and pass them on to 15 of their colleagues in structured cascade sessions. • For the cascade sessions, pathfinders were supplied with a pack containing bullet-point summaries, visual support on overhead transparencies, a computer disk, and a video summary.

23. Guides for Readable Writing(Figure 5-3) • Use simple words and phrases, such as improve instead of ameliorate and like instead of in a manner similar to that of. • Use short and familiar words, such as darken instead of obfuscate. • Use personal pronouns, such as you and them, if the style permits. • Use illustrations, examples, and charts. • Use short sentences and paragraphs. The communicator’s job is to inform people, not to impress them. • Use active verb forms, such as “The manager said …” rather than passive verb forms, such as “It was said by the manager that …” • Don’t use unnecessary words.

24. Guidelines for Effective Speaking • Determine the purpose of your communication. Is it to explain ideas to others? To entertain? Tailor your speech to facilitate the desired purpose of your communication. • Consider issues of time and space. Determine the best time and location for delivering your message. • Adapt to your listeners. Consider the size of the audience as well as factors such as audience age, gender, interests, level of knowledge about the subject, and values. Consider also audience expectations about the nature of the speech. • Use appropriate vocabulary. Speak at the proper level, and with appropriate terminology, for the particular audience.

25. Guidelines for Effective Speaking (Continued) • Practice voice control. Consider proper speech volume, pitch, and speaking rate. Avoid mumbling and awkward pauses. • Use appropriate gestures. Properly used, gestures can make a presentation more engaging, and they may help disguise anxiety. Avoid short, jerky movements that may appear as nervousness, and use a variety of gestures to reinforce spoken points or even as substitutes. • Organize your presentation. Any oral presentation can be divided into three parts: gaining attention, presenting the information, and closing effectively. Each is critical.

26. Develop an Outline to Achieve Objectives in View of Audience Characteristics Develop the Content of the Speech or Presentation Select Appropriate Methods for Delivery of the Speech or Presentation Practice Making the Speech or Presentation Individually or With a Mock Audience At the Beginning of the Actual Speech or Presentation, Make a Good First Impression During the Speech or Presentation, Maintain Good Eye Contact with All Members During the Speech or Presentation, Use Appropriate Hand Gestures and Voice Variations Finish the Speech or Presentation Strongly by Reinforcing Key Points The Bottom Line: Developing EffectiveSpeaking Skills Identify the Objective(s) for the Speech or Presentation

27. Guidelines for Active Listening • Control the physical environment. Try to minimize noise and other distractions, • Be alert. Give your full attention, and allot the necessary time to listen. • Be mentally prepared. Do your homework in advance of the presentation. Anticipate the encounter by learning new terminology and background information about the persons, organization, or issues. • Be emotionally prepared. Keep an open mind about what is being said, even if it is unpleasant. Give the speaker the opportunity to complete his or her message before raising questions.

28. Guidelines for Active Listening (Continued) • Be attentive. Continually review the speaker’s message, and tie the various segments of the message together. Take notes if necessary, but record only main points. • Read nonverbal cues. Pay attention to the speaker’s tone of voice, expressions, gestures, and other nonverbal cues. • Distinguish among facts, inferences, and value judgments. Try to sort out whether what is being said is a fact that can be verified, an inference, or a personal judgment. • Offer and solicit feedback. The best sort of feedback in a listening situation is to paraphrase the speaker’s message.

29. Capture the “Meaning” of the Message Based on its Content and the Sender’s Nonverbal Cues Reality Test the Understanding of the Message by Reflecting It Back to the Sender The Sender Confirms or Disconfirms the Accuracy of Message Interpretation Bottom Line: Developing Active Listening Skills Receive the Message From the Sender

30. Nonverbal Communication • Nonverbal communication is communication that uses no words or uses words in ways that conveys meaning beyond their strict definition. • It may take place through such channels as the body, the face, the tone of voice, and interpersonal distance. • The meaning of nonverbal communication often varies markedly across cultures. • Studies suggest that a substantial amount of information transmitted during a conversation -- perhaps 80 or 90 percent -- is nonverbal.

31. Functions of Nonverbal Communication • Accenting is adding emphasis to a verbal message. • Contradicting is signaling the opposite of the verbal message. • Substituting is replacing the verbal message with a nonverbal message. • Complementing involves sending the same message nonverbally that is sent verbally. • Regulating is using nonverbal communication to control the flow of the verbal message.

32. Proxemics Dress Paralanguage Touch Hand Movements Posture Facial Expressions Eye Contact Forms of Nonverbal Communication(Figure 5-4) Nonverbal Communication

33. Paralanguage • Paralanguage concerns how something is said rather than what is said. It involves all vocal aspects of speech other than words. • For example, voice qualities -- such as pitch, rhythm, tempo, and volume -- influence interpretation of a verbal message. • A soft, low-pitched voice and a slow rate indicate liking, while a high-pitched voice indicates anger. Moderate rate, pitch, and volume indicate boredom. • Vocal characterizers, such as coughing, clearing the throat, and grunting, generally are distracting and annoying. • Vocal qualifiers are variations in tone or intensity of speech. For instance, increases in rate or volume may indicate impatience or anger, respectively. • Vocal segregates are pauses between utterances. In situations such as interviews, prolonged pauses suggest a lack of confidence and organization.

34. Hand Movements • Some hand movements have a specific meaning that is understood in a particular culture or occupation, such as a thumbs-up gesture. • Others, such as touching oneself or others, may be associated with anxiety, guilt, hostility, or suspicion. • For example, interviewers are sometimes taught that a hand-to-face movement is a sign of deception.

35. Facial Expressions • By one estimate, the human face can make 250,000 different expressions. • The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder wrote more than 2,000 years ago that “The face of man is the index to joy and mirth, to severity and sadness.” • Facial expressions are generally understood to have a particular meaning. • For example, facial expressions communicating six emotions -- happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust -- are recognized worldwide. • Even when people try to suppress facial expressions, they make very short expressions lasting a fraction of a second that will reveal true meaning.

36. Global Perspectives:The Smile Trainers • The Japanese are too serious, says Yoshido Kadokawa, author of the book Power of the Laughing Face and president of the Smile Amenity Institute. • At a seminar for managers, his students bite on a chopstick or pen. Kodokawa then instructs them to “lift the edge of your mouth higher than the edge of the chopstick. Hold your cheeks and count: idi, ni, san. This is how you form your mouth shape.” • Job applicants for McDonald’s in Japan are asked to describe their most pleasant experience, and then managers evaluate whether their faces reflect the pleasure they are discussing. Applicants who don’t have genuine smiles are banished to making burgers rather than greeting customers.

37. Eye Contact • Eye contact is a major regulator of conversation. • Generally, eye contact suggests understanding and interest. • Seeking eye contact connotes the desire to open a conversation. Conversely, someone hoping to avoid communication will avoid eye contact. • Some characteristic eye-contact patterns have specific meanings. For instance, the slow blink -- a pattern in which an individual closes his or her eyes for two to four seconds and then slowly opens them -- indicates doubt or suspicion.

38. Posture • Posture is the way people position their bodies with respect to others. • For example, if a customer’s arms are relaxed and open and she leans forward as she talks to a salesperson, her posture reflects approval and acceptance of the salesperson’s message. • If she leans back with arms tightly crossed, her posture suggests rejection or disagreement.

39. Touch • Touch can convey warmth, understanding, and intimacy. • Touch may also enhance positive feelings about the touching person and the situation. • Studies show that when a store assistant, server in a restaurant, or product demonstrator lightly touched a customer on the arm, the customer saw the touching person more positively, had a more positive attitude toward the situation, and was more likely to comply with the toucher’s suggestions. • This research involved casual touching of the arm. Many other forms of touching may be resented, and unwanted touching can be a form of sexual harassment.

40. Dress • Dress can convey characteristics such as image, mood, identity, power, wealth, and authority. • People who are dressed formally are better able to command respect. • People in positions of authority often wear distinctive uniforms to reinforce their status. • We all wear our own uniforms, that is, the particular way we choose to dress to communicate something about ourselves. • Many companies are experimenting with their dress codes, including instituting “dress-down days.”

41. Proxemics • Proxemics is the use of interpersonal space (that is, proximity) to convey status or degree of intimacy. • Sitting at the head of a table conveys status. • Standing close to another conveys intimacy. • Sitting behind a desk (as opposed to alongside it) indicates a superior-subordinate relationship. • Two elements of proxemics -- personal space and seating arrangements -- are especially relevant in organizational settings. They will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 12.

42. Lighten Up: Smileys • E-mail takes away much of the opportunity for nonverbal communication. • Emoticons, or smileys, are series of little faces that, when read sideways, resemble little faces and convey emotions. • Here is a sampling of smileys: :-( I’m sad :-o I’m bored (yawn) :-# My lips are sealed C=>:*)) I’m a drunk demonic chef with a cold and a double chin

43. E-commerce E-mail Teleconferencing and Videoconferencing The Internet and the World Wide Web Some Issues in Electronic Communication Use of Computers in Communication

44. Guidelines for Using E-Mail • Be careful. Both sending and receiving e-mail demands caution. Don’t send sloppy or hastily reasoned messages, and avoid a “slip of the finger” that could misdirect a message. Be careful when opening attachments since they main contain viruses. • Recognize privacy issues. Don’t write anything in e-mail messages that you would not want to be widely read. • Keep messages clear, simple, and short. Use a subject line that conveys the content of the message. Avoid lengthy attachments and fancy formatting. • Reply only to appropriate persons. Ask yourself who really needs the message.

45. Guidelines for Using E-Mail (Continued) • Personalize your e-mail as appropriate. Smileys can be used to convey feelings and add a personal touch. These shouldn’t be overused, and they may be inappropriate in some formal e-mails. • Be considerate. Avoid using e-mail to vent frustration and anger through hostile messages. Such flaming can create a climate of distrust, fear, and anger. Practice netiquette. • Check e-mail at least once a day. Respond promptly. If your message will be delayed, let the sender know you received the message and when you will respond. • Manage your e-mail with folders and filters. Set up folders to organize e-mails and filters to eliminate junk mail and to transfer low-priority mail to appropriate folders.

46. The Internet and the World Wide Web • The Internet is a worldwide collection of computer networks permitting access to libraries, news sources, and groups with special interests. • Perhaps the most interesting part of the Internet is the World Wide Web. The Web is a collection of standards used to access the information available on the Internet. • Since the development of Web browsers, growth of the Web has been dramatic. • Corporate portals provide access to internal company information via a Web browser.

47. Web Wise: Enquire WithinUpon Everything • The World Wide Web was invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989. • Berners-Lee’s idea for the Web came from a Victorian book entitled Enquire Within Upon Anything, a volume full of all sorts of useful advice about a wide range of topics. • To read Berner’s Lee’s views on the Web and the Internet, and to learn more about their histories, visit: http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee-Bio.html/FAQ.html

48. Web Wise: The New Marketplace of Ideas When the Supreme Court struck down the so-called Communications Decency Act, which would have regulated the content of material on the Internet, Justice John Paul Stevens wrote: “Through the use of chat rooms, any person with a phone line can become a town crier with a voice that resonates farther than it could from any soapbox. Through the use of Web pages, mail exploders, and newsgroups, the same individual can become a pamphleteer.” http://www.ciec.org/SC_appeal/opinion/shtml

49. Teleconferencing and Videoconferencing • Teleconferencing permits a group of people to “confer” simultaneously via telephone or electronic mail. • Teleconferencing that also has the capability to let participants see each other over video screens is called videoconferencing. • Such technologies offer businesses tremendous savings in time, energy, and money. • Many companies conduct sales meetings, editorial conferences, and job interviews via teleconference. • The systems enable companies to form work teams able to overcome the barriers of time and space.

50. Focus on Management: Lernout and HauspieHas the World Talking • Lerner and Hauspie, a Belgian company, is the world’s leading provider of speech and language technology products, solutions, and services to businesses and individuals. • It is the firm’s mission to break down barriers through advanced translation technology and to enable people to interact by voice -- in any language -- with the machines that empower them. • The firm’s cofounder estimates that by 2005 there will be 500 million devices in use containing speech-enabled systems to permit e-commerce by telephone.