Development Across the Life Span: A Study of Human Growth and Change

1. Study Area 8 Development across the life span

2. Development Across the Life Span Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan. Lifespan development is the name psychologists have given to the physical and cognitive changes that occur throughout a person's life Human development: the scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death

3. Developmental Research Designs

4. Developmental Research Designs • Longitudinal design: research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time • cohort effect: impact on development when a group of people share common time period or life experience

5. Longitudinal Design Tested at 1 year (Time 1) Again at 4 years (Time 2) Again at 7 years (Time 3)

6. Same Participants Different Times Different Times Different Times Longitudinal Design Compare Compare Tested at 1 year (Time 1) Again at 4 years (Time 2) Again at 7 years (Time 3)

7. Developmental Research Designs • Cross-sectional design: research design in which several different age groups of participants are studied at one particular point in time • Cross-sequential design: research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross-sectional design but also followed and assessed over time.

8. Nature versus Nurture • Nature: the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions • Nurture: the influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions • Behavioral genetics: focuses on nature vs. nurture

9. Genetics and Development • Genetics: the science of inherited traits • behavioral genetics • DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism

10. DNA Molecule In this model of a DNA molecule, the two strands making up the sides of the “twisted ladder” are composed of sugars and phosphates. The “rungs” of the ladder that link the two strands are amines. Amines contain the genetic codes for building the proteins that make up organic life.

11. Genetics and Development • Gene: section of DNA having a certain pattern of chemical elements • dominant: referring to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait • recessive: referring to a gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene

12. Genetics and Development • Chromosome: tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA • Chromosome disorders include Down syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome, and Turner’s syndrome • Genetic disorders include PKU, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Tay-Sachs disease

13. Genetic defects and chromosomal abnormalities are both sometimes called "genetic conditions" or "genetic disorders," but the difference lies in how much of the DNA is actually affected. A chromosomal abnormality affects an entire chromosome and many or all of the genes that make it up. The most common chromosomal abnormalities are duplications, where an individual has an extra copy of a chromosome.  When differentiating genetic defects from chromosomal abnormalities, it can be less confusing to call genetic defects "single-gene defects" because they involve mutations in individual genes. Though the affected gene may not give proper instructions, the individual's overall chromosome number and structure are normal.

14. Conception • Conception: the moment at which a female becomes pregnant • Ovum: the female sex cell, or egg • Fertilization: the union of the ovum and sperm • Zygote: cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm; divides into many cells, eventually forming the baby

15. Conception and Twins • Monozygotic twins: identical twins • formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo • Dizygotic twins: often called fraternal twins • occur when two eggs get fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in the development of two zygotes in the uterus at the same time

16. Monozygotic and Dizygotic TwinsBecause identical twins come from one fertilized egg (zygote), they are called monozygotic. Fraternal twins, who come from two different fertilized eggs, are called dizygotic.

17. Periods of Pregnancy The three periods of prenatal development (not trimesters).

18. Periods of Pregnancy • Germinal period: first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining • embryo is the name for the developing organism from two weeks to eight weeks after fertilization

19. Periods of Pregnancy • Embryonic period: the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop • critical periods: times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant • teratogen: any factor that can cause a birth defect

22. Periods of Pregnancy • Fetal period: the time from about eight weeks after conception until the birth of the child • fetus: name for the developing organism from eight weeks after fertilization to the birth of the baby • viability: the point at which it is possible for an infant to survive outside the womb, usually about 22-26 weeks

23. Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood • Infants are born with 5 reflexes that help them survive • grasping • Moro (startle) • rooting • stepping • sucking

24. Infant Survival ReflexesShown here are (a) grasping reflex; (b) startle reflex (also known as the Moro reflex); (c) rooting reflex (when you touch a baby‘s cheek it will turn toward your hand, open its mouth, and search for the nipple); grasping reflex rooting reflex startle reflex aka Moro reflex

25. Infant Survival Reflexes(d) stepping reflex; and (e) sucking reflex. These infant reflexes can be used to check the health of an infant’s nervous system. If a reflex is absent or abnormal, it may indicate brain damage or some other neurological problem. sucking reflex stepping reflex

26. Six Motor MilestonesShown here are (a) raising head and chest - 2 to 4 months, (b) rolling over—2 to 5 months, (c) sitting up with support—4 to 6 months, sitting up with support raising head & chest rolling over

27. Motor Milestones(d) sitting up without support—6 to 7 months, (e) crawling—7 to 8 months, and (f) walking—8 to 18 months. The motor milestones develop as the infant gains greater voluntary control over the muscles in its body, typically from the top of the body downward. This pattern is seen in the early control of the neck muscles and the much later development of control of the legs and feet. crawling walking sitting up without support

28. Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood • The senses, except for vision, are fairly well developed at birth • Brain development • synaptic pruningor axon pruning is the process of synapse elimination that occurs between early childhood and the onset of puberty in many mammals, including humans. Pruning starts near the time of birth and is completed by the time of sexual maturation in humans.

29. Cognitive Development • Cognitive development: the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory • Jean Piaget: developed a four-stage theory of cognitive development based on observation of infants and children • schemes: mental concepts formed by children as they experience new situations and events

30. Jean Piaget

31. Piaget’s Stage Theory • Sensorimotor stage: Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, in which the infant uses its sensesandmotor abilities to interact with objects in the environment • The first stage of Piaget's theory lasts from birth to approximately age two and is centered on the infant trying to make sense of the world. • object permanence: the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight

32. Piaget’s Stage Theory • Preoperational stage: Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world • egocentrism: the inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes • centration: in Piaget’s theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features

33. Piaget’s Stage Theory • Preoperational Stage (cont’d) • conservation: in Piaget’s theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object’s nature • irreversibility: in Piaget’s theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action

34. Conservation ExperimentA typical conservation task consists of pouring equal amounts of water into two glasses of the same size and shape. When the water from one of these glasses is poured into a taller, narrower glass, children who cannot yet conserve tend to focus (centrate) on the height of the water in the second glass, assuming that the second glass now has more water than the first one. In the second example, pennies are laid out in two equal lines. When the pennies in the top line are spaced out, the child who cannot yet conserve will centrate on the top line and assume that there are actually more pennies in that line.

35. Piaget’s Stage Theory • Concrete operations stage: third stage of cognitive development, in which the school-aged child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking • Formal operations: Piaget’s last stage of cognitive development, in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking

36. Vygotsky’s Theory Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of human learning describes learning as a social process and the origination of human intelligence in society or culture. The major theme of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. • Scaffolding: process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, then reduces the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable

37. Vygotsky’s Theory • Zone of proximal development (ZPD): the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher private speech: Vygotsky viewed this as a way for a child to “think out loud” and advance cognitively

38. Language Development • Language development allows children to: • think in words rather than images • ask questions • communicate their needs • form concepts • Child-directed speech: children attend to higher-pitched, repetitious, sing-song speech

39. Stages of Language Development • Cooing • Babbling • One-Word Speech (Holophrases) • Telegraphic Speech • Whole sentences

40. Autism Spectrum Disorder • Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a group of developmental disabilities that can cause significant social, communication and behavioral challenges.  • myths relating ASD to vaccines have been debunked

41. Autism Spectrum Disorder • People with ASD often have problems with social, emotional, and communication skills. They might repeat certain behaviors and might not want change in their daily activities. Many people with ASD also have different ways of learning, paying attention, or reacting to things. Signs of ASD begin during early childhood and typically last throughout a person’s life. • Children or adults with ASD might: • not point at objects to show interest (for example, not point at an airplane flying over) • not look at objects when another person points at them • have trouble relating to others or not have an interest in other people at all • avoid eye contact and want to be alone • have trouble understanding other people’s feelings or talking about their own feelings

42. Autism Spectrum Disorder • Children or adults with ASD might: • prefer not to be held or cuddled, or might cuddle only when they want to • appear to be unaware when people talk to them, but respond to other sounds • be very interested in people, but not know how to talk, play, or relate to them • repeat or echo words or phrases said to them, or repeat words or phrases in place of normal language • have trouble expressing their needs using typical words or motions • not play “pretend” games (for example, not pretend to “feed” a doll) • repeat actions over and over again • have trouble adapting when a routine changes • have unusual reactions to the way things smell, taste, look, feel, or sound • lose skills they once had (for example, stop saying words they were using)

43. Temperament • Temperament: behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth • easy: regular, adaptable, and happy • difficult: irregular, nonadaptable, and irritable • slow to warm up: need to adjust gradually to change • Temperament influences how a child behaves toward individuals and objects around them and how the environment affects them.  This concept also indicates that many behavioral tendencies are inborn – notthe result of faulty parenting. 

44. Attachment • Attachment: the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver • secure: willing to explore; upset when mother departs, but easily soothed upon her return • avoidant: unattached; explores without “touching base”

45. Attachment • Attachment (cont’d) • ambivalent: insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return • disorganized-disoriented: insecurely attached and sometimes abused or neglected; child seems fearful, dazed, and depressed

46. Self-Concept Self-conceptis the image you have of yourself based on your interactions with the important people in your life.

47. Erikson’s Stages • Trust versus mistrust: first stage of personality development • the infant’s basic sense of trust or mistrust develops as a result of consistent or inconsistent care • Autonomy versus shame and doubt: second stage of personality development • the toddler strives for physical independence

48. Erikson’s Stages • Initiative versus guilt: third stage of personality development • the preschool-aged child strives for emotional and psychological independence and attempts to satisfy curiosity about the world • Industry versus inferiority: fourth stage of personality development • the adolescent strives for a sense of competence and self-esteem

49. 1st four stages of development

50. Erikson’s Fifth Stage • Identity versus role confusion: fifth stage of personality development • the adolescent must find a consistent sense of self • Parent–teen conflict