Understanding Human Remains: Autopsies, Livor Mortis, and Forensic Entomology

1. Chapter 12:Human Remains “There is a brief but very informative biography of an individual contained within the skeleton, if you know how to read it…” —Clyde Snow, Forensic Anthropologist

2. Autopsies • Performed by a pathologist • Determines the time of death. This can be done most accurately if the body is found within the first 24 hours of death • Uses certain indicators such as algor, livor and rigor mortis.

3. Rigor Mortis The rigidity of skeletal muscles after death. Temperature Stiffness Approximate Time of body of body Since Death • Warm • Warm • Cold • Cold • Not stiff • Stiff • Stiff • Not stiff • Not dead more than 3 hrs • Dead between 3 and 8 hrs • Dead 8 to 30 hours • Dead more than 30 hours

4. Livor Mortis • Livor mortis is the settling of blood, resulting in a reddish or purplish color pattern. • Lividity can indicate the position of the body after death. When lividity becomes fixed, then the distribution of the pattern will not change even if the body’s position is altered. • Lividity usually becomes fixed (unable to blanche) between 10 and 15 hours after death. If body is blanchable, it is less than 10-15 hours old

5. Algor Mortis • Algor mortis is the cooling rate of the body after death. • At a crime scene, the body temperature is obtained through: • Liver temperature Glaister equation: 98.4°F - liver temperature/1.5 = hours elapsed since death • Generally the body cools 1 to ½ degrees Fahrenheit per hour until it reaches the surrounding temperature. • Rate of cooling can change depending on the surroundings

6. Forensic Entomology Insects as Evidence

7. Insects as Evidence Forensic entomologists use their knowledge of insects and their life cycles and behaviors to give them clues about a crime. Most insects used in investigations are in two major orders: 1 – Flies 2 – Beetles Blow Fly Carrion Beetle Species succession provide clues for investigators. -Some species may to feed on a fresh corpse, while another species may prefer to feed on one that has been dead for two weeks. -Investigators will also find other insect species that prey on the insects feeding on the corpse.

8. Other Factors to Consider Weather data is also an important tool in analyzing insect evidence from a corpse. Temperature and precipitation levels affect how insects will develop on the body Other factors that might affect their estimates: Was the body enclosed in an area or wrapped in a material that would have prevented flies from finding the corpse and laying eggs? Were other insect species present that may have affected the development of the collected species? Were there drugs or other poisons in or on the body that might have affected the larvae’s development? Did you know? Maggots can be used to test a corpse for the presence of poisons or drugs. Some drugs can speed up or slow down the insect’s development.

9. Blow Fly Metamorphosis Blow flies are attracted to dead bodies and often arrive within minutes of the death of an animal. Adult 1st – Adult flies lay eggs on the carcass especially at wound areas or around the openings in the body 2nd – Eggs hatch into larva (maggots) in 12-24 hours. 3rd– Larvae continue to grow and molt (shed their exoskeletons) as they pass through the various instar stages. 1st Instar - 5 mm long after 1.8 days 2nd Instar - 10 mm long after 2.5 days 3rd Instar – 14-16 mm long after 4-5 days 4th – The larvae develop into pupa after burrowing in surrounding soil. 5th – Adult flies emerge from pupa cases after 6-8days. Pupa Eggs 1st Instar Larva 3rd Instar Larva 2nd Instar Larva It takes approximately 14-16 days from egg to adult depending on the temperatures and humidity levels at the location of the body.

10. Examples of Beetles Early Stage Decomposition Early to Late Stage Decomposition Carrion Beetles (Silphidae)Adults & larvae feed on fly larvae Rove Beetles (Staphylinidae) Predator of fly eggs Clown Beetles (Histeridae) Predator of fly eggs Late Stage Decomposition Ham & Checkered Beetles (Cleridae)Predator of flies & beetles; also feed on dead tissue Hide Beetles (Scarabidae)Usually the last to arrive Skin Beetles (Dermestidae)Feed on dried skin & tissues Informational Source: http://naturalsciences.org/files/documents/csi_tg_overview.doc Images: http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/library/spotid/coleoptera/coleoptera.html & http://www.forensicflies.com/beetles.htm

11. Forensic Anthropology in real life Bill Bass is a forensic anthropologist who has assisted law enforcement with hundreds of cases. He established the world’s first and only laboratory devoted to the study of human decomposition at the University of Tennessee’s Anthropology Research Facility. It is known as “the body farm.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=6&v=jiIBpHC7Lfo

12. The Body Farm The nickname of a two and a half acre research facility in Tennessee developed in 1980 by Bill Bass where bodies are placed in various conditions and allowed to decompose. Itsmain purpose is to observe and understand the processes and timetable of postmortem decay. Over the years it has helped to improve the ability to determine "time since death" in murder cases. “Hic locus estubimortuiviveuntes docent.” This is the place where the dead teach the living.

13. Forensic Anthropology Forensic anthropology is a type of applied anthropology that specializes in the changes and variations in the human skeleton for the purpose of legal inquiry

14. Forensic Anthropology • A forensic anthropologist may provide basic identification information of skeletonized or badly decomposed remains. • From a whole bone or part of a bone, the scientist may be able to determine: • An age range • Sex • Race • Approximate height • Cause of death, disease, or anomaly

15. Osteology Study of bones 206 bones in an adult human Function of bones: • Provides structure and rigidity • Protects soft tissue and organs • Serves as an attachment for muscles • Produces blood cells • Serves as a storage area for minerals • Can detoxify the body by removing heavy metals and other foreign elements from the blood

16. Age Determination Most accurate estimations from: • Teeth • Epiphyses (bone growth plates) • Pubic symphysis (hips) • Cranial sutures: the three major cranial sutures appear as distinct lines in youth and gradually close from the inside out. **Investigators always use an age range because of the variation in people and how they age.

17. Sagittal suture Age Determination Using Cranial Sutures Sagittal suture completely closed • Males—26 or older • Female—29 or older Sagittal suture is completely open • Male—less than 32 • Female—less than 35 Complete closure of all three major sutures • Male—over 35 • Female—over 50 Coronal Lambodial

18. Gender Differences • Gender can be determined by examining: • Skull Features • Pubis (hip bones) • Relative size of bones • Males are larger than females

19. Gender Differences in Bones The pelvis of the female is wider. Males have a narrow subpubic angle (A) and a narrow pubic body (B).

20. Male Female Sub Pubic Angle

21. Gender Differences The ribcage and shoulders of males are generally wider and larger than that of females.

22. Race Characteristics • The skull is particularly useful in determining race if needed

23. CAUCASIAN Angular Oval Orbits Long, narrow nasal aperture

24. Asian Rounded Orbits Rounded nasal aperture

25. African Square Orbits Wide Nasal Aperture

26. What differences do you notice between these three skulls? Can you determine race? African Asian Caucasian

27. Estimation of Height • The height of a person can be calculated by using the length of long bones. • Femur, humerus, radius and tibia • Below are the equations to determine average measurements for both male and female. (All measurements are in centimeters) Male Female . femur x 2.23 + 69.08 femur x 2.21 +61.41 tibia x 2.39 + 81.68 tibia x 2.53 + 72.57 humerus x 2.97 + 73.57 humerus x 3.14 + 64.97 radius x 3.65 + 80.40 radius x 3.87 + 73.50

28. Facial Restoration • Used with unidentified remains • Helps give a proportioning of facial features to help in recognition • -Does not give a full accurate depiction of the actual appearance of the deceased. After determining the sex, age, and race of an individual, facial features can be built upon a skull to assist in identification. Erasers are used to make tissue depths at various points on the skull. Clay is used to build around these markers and facial features are molded.

29. Animal Facial Restoration Determining what T Rex looked like using the bone formation. From this: To this: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

30. Unit 3: BloodTypes/DNA/Spatter

31. Serology • Serology is the examination and analysis of body fluids. • A forensic serologist may analyze a variety of body fluids including saliva, semen, urine, and blood. • With the development of DNA techniques, more time, money, and significance were placed on developing DNA labs. -However, with limited funds and the time required for DNA testing, most labs still use many of the basic serology testing procedures.

32. Blood Characteristics Plasma is the fluid portion of the blood (55%) Cells(45%) Erythrocytes are red blood cells. They are responsible for oxygen distribution. Leukocytes are the white blood cells; they are responsible for “cleaning” the system of foreign invaders. Thrombocytes are platelets responsible for blood clotting. Serum is the liquid that separates from the blood when a clot is formed.

33. Human versus Animal Blood Animal Blood Human Blood Larger nucleic red blood cells Red blood cells are most numerous; 5 to 6 million per mm3 White blood cells are larger and less numerous; 5,000 to 10,000 per mm3 Platelets are tiny, cellular fragments; 350,000 to 500,000 per mm3 Frog blood

34. Blood Types

35. Blood Typing Terminology ABO blood groups—based on having A, B, both, or no antigens on red blood cells Rh factor—may be present on red blood cells; positive if present and negative if not Antigen—a substance that can stimulate the body to make antibodies. Certain antigens (proteins) found in the plasma of the red blood cell’s membrane account for blood type. Antibody—a substance that reacts with an antigen Agglutination—clumping of red blood cells; will result if blood types with different antigens are mixed

36. Blood Typing • Blood type A has antigen A on the surface of the cell and will agglutinate with blood type B. • Blood type B has antigen B on the surface of the cell and will agglutinate with blood type A. • Blood type AB has antigens A and B on the surface of the cells • will notagglutinate if type AB receives any other type • Will agglutinate if donated to any other type • Blood type O has neither antigen A nor B • will not agglutinate if donated to any type • Will agglutinate if type O receives any other type

37. Agglutination • Blood Clotting due to mixing of blood types • Why you must be careful when receiving blood • The picture on the left shows blood agglutination. • -Would happen if Type A mixes with Type B • -Would happen if any other type is donated to O • -Would happen if AB donates to any other types • The picture on the right shows no signs of agglutination • -Would happen if A mixes with A • -Would happen if B mixes with B • -Would happen if O is donated to anything • -Would happen if AB receives anything

38. Blood Types and Donation Can Give Blood To Can Get Blood From Antigen Type Antibody O, A B A A A, AB B B B, AB O, B A Neither A nor B AB A, B, O, AB AB A and B Neither A nor B A, B, O, AB A and B O O

39. Population Distribution of Blood Types in the U.S. Type Percent 45 O 40 A B 11 AB 4

40. Rh Factor -Another antigen that can be present + CANNOT donate to – – CAN donate to +

41. Putting it All Together O- is the universal donor AB+ is the universal acceptor

42. Genotypes for blood type Type O is the recessive blood type, which is why it gets a lowercase (i).

43. Genotypes & Phenotypes of Blood

44. Example Problem: Dad is homozygous for Type A blood. Mom is heterozygous for Type B blood. Do a Punnett Square to find out the offspring. IBi • Child Genotypes and Phenotypes • IAIB Type AB (50%) • IAi Type A (50%) IA IA

45. DNA Analysis

46. General DNA Information • Double helix—two coiled DNA strands • In humans, the order of these bases is 99.9% the same. • Four bases • Adenine • Cytosine • Guanine • Thymine

47. DNA Base Pair Matching • Bases always pair A to T and G to C • Original DNA Strand: AATCAGTCG • Complimentary Strand: TTAGTCAGC You Try it! • Original: TCCGATTCAAG • Complimentary Strand: __________________

48. Types of DNA • Nuclear • In all nucleated cells • Inherited 50% from each parent • Mitochondrial • In all cells • Inherited ONLY FROM MOTHER

49. Where Is DNA Found? • Nuclear DNA is found in all nucleated body cells— • white blood cells • Semen • Saliva • Urine • hair root • Teeth • Bone • Tissue • Cheek cells are the most common site for DNA sampling • Red blood cells have no nuclei = no nuclear DNA • DNA obtained from blood comes from white blood cells

50. DNA Typing DNA typing is a method in which DNA is converted into a series of bands that ultimately distinguish each individual. Only .1% of DNA differs from one person to the next. -Scientists use these regions to generate a DNA profile of an individual.