Chapter 4 Electrical Principles

1. Chapter 4Electrical Principles

2. Radio Mathematics • Basic Trigonometry • Sine • sin(θ) = a/c • Cosine • cos(θ) = b/c • Tangent • tan(θ) = a/b • ArcSin, ArcCos, ArcTan c a θ b

3. Radio Mathematics • Complex Numbers • Represented by X + jY where j = • Also called “imaginary” numbers. • “X” is the “real” part. • “jY” is the “imaginary” part.

4. Radio Mathematics • Coordinate Systems • Mathematical tools used to plot numbers or a position on a graph. • 2-dimensional & 3-dimensional coordinate systems are the most common. • Latitude & Longitude = 2-dimensional. • Latitude, Longitude, & Altitude = 3-dimensional.

5. Radio Mathematics • Coordinate Systems • Complex impedances consisting of combinations of resistors, capacitors, and inductors can be plotted using a 2-dimensional coordinate system. • There are two types of coordinate systems commonly used for plotting impedances. • Rectangular. • Polar.

6. Radio Mathematics • Rectangular Coordinates • Also called Cartesian coordinates.

7. Radio Mathematics • Rectangular Coordinates • A pair of numbers specifies a position on the graph. • 1st number (x) specifies position along horizontal axis. • 2nd number (y) specifies position along vertical axis.

8. Radio Mathematics • Plotting Impedance • Resistance along positive x-axis (right). • Inductive reactance along positive y-axis (up). • Capacitive reactance along negative y-axis (down). • Negative x-axis (left) not used.

9. Radio Mathematics • Polar Coordinates • A pair of numbers specifies a position on the graph. • 1st number (r) specifies distance from the origin. • 2nd number (θ) specifies angle from horizontal axis.

10. Radio Mathematics • Vectors • Line with BOTH length and direction. • Represented by a single-headed arrow. • A phasor (phase vector) is often used to represent phase relationships between impedances.

11. Radio Mathematics • Polar Coordinates • Specify a phasor. • Length of phasor is impedance. • Angle of phasor is phase angle. • Angle always between +90º & -90º. 90º 4/30º 0º 5/-45º -90º

12. Radio Mathematics • Working with Polar and Rectangular Coordinates • Complex numbers can be expressed in either rectangular or polar coordinates. • Adding/subtracting complex numbers more easily done using rectangular coordinates. • (a + jb) + (c + jd) = (a+c) + j(b+d) • (a + jb) - (c + jd) = (a-c) + j(b-d)

13. Radio Mathematics • Working with Polar and Rectangular Coordinates • Multiplying/dividing complex numbers more easily done using polar coordinates. • a/θ1 x b/θ2 = a x b /θ1 + θ2 • a/θ1 / b/θ2 = a / b /θ1 - θ2

14. Radio Mathematics • Working with Polar and Rectangular Coordinates • Converting from rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates. r =x2 + y2 θ= ArcTan (y/x)

15. Radio Mathematics • Working with Polar and Rectangular Coordinates • Converting from polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates. x = r x cos(θ) y= r x sin (θ)

16. E5C11 -- What do the two numbers represent that are used to define a point on a graph using rectangular coordinates? The magnitude and phase of the point The sine and cosine values The coordinate values along the horizontal and vertical axes The tangent and cotangent values

17. Electrical Principles • Energy • Unit of measurement is the Joule (J). • Work • Transferring energy. • Raising a 1 lb object 10 feet does 10 foot-pounds of work & adds potential energy to the object. • Moving the same object sideways does not do any work & does not add any potential energy to the object.

18. Electrical Principles • Electric and Magnetic Fields • Field • Region of space where energy is stored and through which a force acts. • Energy stored in a field is called potential energy. • Fields are undetectable by any of the 5 human senses. • You can only observe the effects of a field. • Example: Gravity

19. Electrical Principles • Electric and Magnetic Fields • Field • Electronics deals with 2 types of fields: • Electric field. • Magnetic field.

20. Electrical Principles • Electric and Magnetic Fields • Electric Field • Detected by a voltage difference between 2 points. • Every electrical charge has an electric field. • Electrical energy is stored by moving electrical charges apart so that there is a voltage difference (or potential) between them. • Voltage potential = potential energy. • An electrostatic field is an electric field that does not change over time.

21. Electrical Principles • Electric and Magnetic Fields • Magnetic Field • Detected by effect on moving electrical charges (current). • Magnetic energy is stored by moving electrical charges to create an electrical current. • A magnetostatic field is a magnetic field that does not change over time. • Stationary permanent magnet. • Earth’s magnetic field.

22. Electrical Principles • Electromagnetic Fields & Waves • Electromagnetic wave. • Combination of an electric wave (E) & a magnetic wave (H) oriented at right angle to each other. • Each wave varies with time in a sinusoidal pattern at the same frequency.

23. Electrical Principles • Electromagnetic Fields & Waves • Electromagnetic wave. • In free space, electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light. • 186,000 miles/second. • 300,000.000 meters/second Light is actually an extremely high frequency electromagnetic wave.

24. Electrical Principles • Electromagnetic Fields & Waves • Wavefronts. • To a stationary observer, E & H fields appear to vary with time at the frequency of the wave. • To an observer moving at the same speed as and in the same direction as the wave, the E & H fields appear to be constant. • This is called a wavefront.

25. Electrical Principles • Electromagnetic Fields & Waves • Polarization. • Polarization refers to the way the electric wave is orientated with respect to the surface of the earth.

26. E3A15 -- What is an electromagnetic wave? A wave of alternating current, in the core of an electromagnet A wave consisting of two electric fields at parallel right angles to each other A wave consisting of an electric field and a magnetic field oscillating at right angles to each other A wave consisting of two magnetic fields at right angles to each other

27. E3A16 -- Which of the following best describes electromagnetic waves traveling in free space? Electric and magnetic fields become aligned as they travel The energy propagates through a medium with a high refractive index The waves are reflected by the ionosphere and return to their source Changing electric and magnetic fields propagate the energy

28. E3A17 -- What is meant by circularly polarized electromagnetic waves? Waves with an electric field bent into a circular shape Waves with a rotating electric field Waves that circle the Earth Waves produced by a loop antenna

29. E5D08 -- What type of energy is stored in an electromagnetic or electrostatic field? Electromechanical energy Potential energy Thermodynamic energy Kinetic energy

30. Principles of Circuits • RC and RL Time Constants • Electrical energy storage. • Both capacitors and inductors can be used to store electrical energy. • Both capacitors and inductors resist changes in the amount of energy stored. • The same as a flywheel resisting a change to its speed of rotation.

31. Principles of Circuits • RC and RL Time Constants • Electrical energy storage. • Capacitors store electrical energy in an electric field. • Energy is stored by applying a voltage across the capacitor’s terminals. • Strength of field (amount of energy stored) is determined by the voltage across the capacitor. • Higher voltage  more energy stored. • Capacitors oppose changes in voltage.

32. Principles of Circuits • RC and RL Time Constants

33. Principles of Circuits • RC and RL Time Constants • Magnetic energy storage. • Inductors store electrical energy in a magnetic field. • Energy is stored by passing a current through the inductor. • Strength of field (amount of energy stored) is determined by the amount of current through the inductor. • More current  more energy stored. • Inductors oppose changes in current. • Generates a voltage (induced voltage) to counter voltage causing the change in current.

34. Principles of Circuits • RC and RL Time Constants

35. Principles of Circuits • Magnetic Field Direction • Left-Hand Rule Direction of Magnetic Field Magnetic Field surrounding wire Wire or Conductor with current through it Left-Hand Rule

36. Principles of Circuits • RL and RC Time Constants • Time Constant. • When a DC voltage is first applied to a capacitor, the current through the capacitor will initially be high but will fall to zero. • When a DC current is first applied to an inductor, the voltage across the inductor will initially be high but will fall to zero. • “Time constant” is a measure of how fast this transition occurs.

37. Principles of Circuits • RL and RC Time Constants • Time Constant. • In an R-C circuit, one time constant is defined as the length of time it takes the voltage across an uncharged capacitor to reach 63.2% of its final value. • In an R-C circuit, the time constant (Ͳ) is calculated by multiplying the resistance (R) in Ohms by the capacitance (C) in Farads. Ͳ = R x C

38. Principles of Circuits • RL and RC Time Constants • Time Constant. • In an R-L circuit, one time constant is defined as the length of time it takes the current through an inductor to reach 63.2% of its final value. • In an R-L circuit, the time constant (Ͳ) is calculated by dividing the inductance (L) in Henrys by the resistance (R) in Ohms. Ͳ = L / R

39. Principles of Circuits • RL and RC Time Constants

40. Principles of Circuits • RL and RC Time Constants

41. Principles of Circuits • RL and RC Time Constants • Time Constant. • After a period of 5 time constants, the voltage or current can be assumed to have reached its final value. • “Close enough for all practical purposes.”

42. E5B01 -- What is the term for the time required for the capacitor in an RC circuit to be charged to 63.2% of the applied voltage? An exponential rate of one One time constant One exponential period A time factor of one

43. E5B02 -- What is the term for the time it takes for a charged capacitor in an RC circuit to discharge to 36.8% of its initial voltage? One discharge period An exponential discharge rate of one A discharge factor of one One time constant

44. E5B04 -- What is the time constant of a circuit having two 220-microfarad capacitors and two 1-megohm resistors, all in parallel? 55 seconds 110 seconds 440 seconds 220 seconds

45. E5D06 -- In what direction is the magnetic field oriented about a conductor in relation to the direction of electron flow? In the same direction as the current In a direction opposite to the current In all directions; omni-directional In a direction determined by the left-hand rule

46. E5D07 -- What determines the strength of a magnetic field around a conductor? The resistance divided by the current The ratio of the current to the resistance The diameter of the conductor The amount of current flowing through the conductor

47. Principles of Circuits • Phase Angle • Difference in time between 2 different signals at the same frequency measured in degrees. θ= 45º

48. Principles of Circuits • Phase Angle • Leading signal is ahead of 2nd signal. • Lagging signal is behind 2nd signal. Blue signal leads red signal. Blue signal lags red signal.

49. Principles of Circuits • Phase Angle • AC Voltage-Current Relationship in Capacitors • In a capacitor, the current leads the voltage by 90°.

50. Electrical Principles • Phase Angle • AC Voltage-Current Relationship in Inductors • In an inductor, the current lags the voltage by 90°.