Understanding Inheritance and Protein Synthesis in Genetics!

1. Genetics What DNA is telling us!

2. Learning Goals The student will investigate and understand common mechanisms of inheritance and protein synthesis. Key concepts include: • prediction of inheritance of traits based on the Mendelian laws of heredity; • genetic variation (mutation, recombination, deletions, additions to DNA) • use of genetic information; and • exploration of the impact of DNA technologies.

3. vocabulary terms INHERITANCE or HEREDITY- The genetic transmission of characteristics from parent to offspring

4. vocabulary terms GENETICS The study of the transmission of heredity

5. vocabulary terms HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMESA pair of matching chromosomes in an organism- with one inherited from Mom & one from Dad.

6. vocabulary terms AUTOSOME- Any chromosome that is NOT a sex chromosome. In humans there are 22 pairs

7. vocabulary terms GENOTYPE- the genes present in the DNA of an organism.  Genotypes are represented by 2 letters -because (as a result of sexual reproduction) 1 gene from MOM + 1 gene from DAD = 2 genes (2 letters) foroffspring

8. vocabulary terms Now, it turns out there are usually 3 possible GENOTYPES: 1. 2 capital letters (like "TT") 2. 1 of each ("Tt") 3. 2 lowercase letters ("tt"). Since WE LOVE VOCABULARY, each possible combo has a term for it.

9. vocabulary terms • HOMOZYGOUS: GENOTYPE has 2 capital or 2 lowercase letters (ex: TT or tt) ("homo" means "the same") -A zygote is a fertilized egg- • Sometimes the term "PUREBRED" is used instead of homozygous.

10. vocabulary terms • HETEROZYGOUS:GENOTYPE has 1 capital letter & 1 lowercase letter (ex: Tt) ("hetero" means "other") • A heterozygous genotype can also be referred to as HYBRID and sometimes the organism is called a CARRIER

11. vocabulary terms Let's Summarize: Genotype- genes present in an organism (usually abbreviated as 2 letters) • TT = homozygous = purebred • Tt = heterozygous = hybrid • tt = homozygous = purebred

12. vocabulary terms • PHENOTYPE- how the trait physically shows-up in the organism; it is the observable traits present in an organism What the organism LOOKS like • Examples of phenotypes: blue eyes, brown fur, striped fruit, yellow flowers

13. vocabulary terms • POLYGENIC INHERITANCE- a trait controlled by two or more genes that may be on the same or on different chromosomes • Examples of polygenic inheritance: eye color, skin color, and height

14. vocabulary terms • ALLELES- alternative forms of the same gene.  Alleles for a trait are located at corresponding positions on homologous chromosomes called loci. ALLELES Chromosome from MOM A b C d e Chromosome from DAD A B c d E

15. (P) Chromosome from DAD: P Chromosome from MOM: p (p)

16. vocabulary terms • When 1 allele masks (hides) the effect of another, that allele is called DOMINANT • and the hidden allele is called RECESSIVE.

17. vocabulary terms • Dominant alleles are represented by a CAPITAL letter • Recessive alleles are represented by a LOWERCASE letter

18. What are Dominant Genes? • Dominant Genes = gene overshadows the other • Angus Cattle: black is dominant, red is not Dominant: BB - homozygous dominant or Bb - heterozygous Recessive: bb ONLY- Homozygous recessive

19. What are Dominant Genes? Hereford: white face is dominant Dominant: WW or Ww Recessive: ww ONLY

20. What are Recessive Genes? • The gene that is overshadowed by a dominant gene • Recessive genes can only express themselves if BOTH genes are recessive • So the genotype MUST be homozygous recessive

21. What are Recessive Genes? Black wool is recessive to white wool. Dominant: WW or Ww Recessive: ww ONLY

22. What are Recessive Genes? • Some types of dwarfism are recessive to average size. Dominant: DD or Dd Recessive: dd ONLY

23. What are Recessive Genes? • Albinism (Albino) is recessive to pigmented.

24. What makes an organism the way that it is? • NATURE vs. NURTURE · Traits that are expressed through genes can be inherited. Characteristics that are acquired through environmental influences, such as injuries or practiced skills, cannot be inherited.

25. Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) • Austrian monk • Called the “Father of Genetics" for his study of the inheritance of 7 traits in pea plants.

26. Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) • The traits that Mendel chose to study were easily observable in 2 distinct forms. • EX.: Stem Height - tall vs. short • Pod Shape - round vs. wrinkled • Flower Color – white vs. purple • Seed Color – green vs. yellow

27. Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) • The significance of Mendel's work was not recognized until the turn of the 20th century • Its rediscovery prompted the foundation of genetics.

29. Geneticists apply mathematical principles of probability to Mendel’s laws of heredity in order to predict the results of simple genetic crosses

30. Mendel’s laws of heredity are based on his mathematical analysis of observations of patterns of the inheritance of traits. • The laws of probability govern simple genetic recombinations. • To see this we use a Punnett Square

31. Punnett Squares • To complete a Punnett square, we use a letter to represent each allele. • We represent the dominant allele with a capital letter, and the recessive allele is given the same letter but in lowercase. • If there is only ONE TRAIT to look at the probability of occuring –this is a MONOHYBRID CROSS

32. Punnett Squares • For the pea plant flowers: dominant: purple color = P recessive: white color = p. • If both parents( P generation) are purebred, then the purple colored parent must be PP and the white colored parent must be pp.

33. How can we predict these results? Homozygous-dominant We complete the possible combinations. P P p P P p p p P P p p Homozygous-recessive

34. These results show that all the F1 (1st filial generation) offspring are all purple colored hybrids. 100% purple offspring

35. Heterozygous - hybrid We can use another Punnett square to predict the F2 (2nd filial generation) offspring. P p Heterozygous - hybrid P P P P p p P p p p

36. Heterozygous - hybrid The results are always mathematically the same, a 3:1ratio with 75% purple & 25% white offspring P p Heterozygous - hybrid P P P P p p P p p p Phenotypic ratio 3:1 Genotypic ratio 1:2:1

37. Heterozygous - hybrid A genotype ratio is possible gene combination results you expect from a cross Phenotypic ratio 3:1 Genotypic ratio 1:2:1 P p Heterozygous - hybrid P P P P p A phenotype ratio is possible appearance results you expect from a cross. p P p p p

38. Dihybrid cross • You now are determining the probability for TWO TRAITS. • The Punnnett square NOW has 16 possible combinations so all the ratios are out of 16. • To determine the possible gamete combinations you have to FOIL, but I have a short cut, too.

39. Dihybrid cross

40. Dihybrid cross

41. Dihybrid cross

42. Dihybrid cross

43. Dihybrid cross dihybrid cross practice

44. Dihybrid cross

45. Incomplete dominance • When both alleles are present, they are both expressed in the phenotype. • The hybrid is a blend of both alleles. • When expressing incomplete dominant alleles, both alleles are may represented by different capitalized letters. YOU NOW HAVE 3 possible phenotypes!!!!

46. Incomplete dominance:F1 generation Homozygous R R W R W R W W R W R W Homozygous

47. Incomplete dominance:F1 generation 100% pink offspring R R W R W R W W R W R W

48. Incomplete dominance: F2 generation Heterozygous R W R R R R W W R W W W Heterozygous

49. Incomplete dominance:F2 generation Heterozygous A 1:2:1ratio with 25% red, 50% pink & 25% white offspring R W R R R R W W R W W W Heterozygous

50. codominance • When both different alleles are present, they are both expressed in the phenotype. • The hybrid EXPRESSES both alleles so both are clearly seen. • When expressing codominant alleles, alleles are may represented by different capitalized letters.