Scientific Research Methods

1. Scientific Research Methods Prof. Dr. Hüseyin PADEM International Burch University

2. Introduction and Overview • One. Introduction and Overview:1 • Two. Planning and Designing a research Study: 26 • Three. General Approaches for Controlling Artifact and Bias: 65 • Four. Data Collection, assessment Methods, and Measurements Strategies: 95 • Five. General Tipes of Research Designs and Approaches: 123 • Six. Validity: 158 • Seven. Data Preparation, Analyses, and Interpretation: 198 • Eight. Ethical Consideration in Research: 233 • Nine. Disemination Research Results and Distilling Principles of Research Design And Methodology: 261

3. Books • Marczyk, G., DeMatteo, D., Festinger, G., 2005. Essentials of Research Design and Methodology. John Wiley & sons, Inc., USA • Bordens, K.S., Abbott, B.B., 2008. Research Design and Methods. McGraw Hill Pub. USA • McBurney, D.H., White, T,L., 2010. Research Methods. Wadsworth Cengage Learning Pub.USA • Saunders, M., Lewis, P., Thornhill, A., 2007. Research Methods for Business Students. Pearson Education. UK. • Lester, J.D., 1995. Writting Research Papers. Harper Collins College Pub. USA

4. One. Introduction and Overview • Progress in almost every field of science depends on the contributions made by systematic research • The purpose of the research is to ansver questions and acquire new knowledge • Research makes valuable contributions so what we know and how we think about human, things and events • Research can be used for the purposes of description, explanation, and prediction • In recent years, the results of various research studies have taken center stage in the popular media(Cancer, nutrition, stress, pollution … etc).

5. Science and scientist conjure up a variety of images in our minds. • Common image is that of a person in a white lab coat surrounded by bubbling flasks and test tubes… • Simply put, science is a set of methods used to collect information about phenomena in a particular area of interest and build a reliable base of knowledge about them. • A scientist is someone who does science. A scientist is a person who adopts the methods of science in his or her quest for knowledge. However, the simple definition does not capture what scientist do.

6. Science as a way of thinking: science is not just a means of acquiring knowledge, it is also a way of thinking and of viewing the world. A scientist approaches a problem by carefully defining its parameters, seeking out relevant information, and subjecting proposed solutions to rigorous testing. • How do scientists do science: in their quest for knowledge about a phenomenon, scientists can use a wide variety of techniques, each suited to a particular purpose.

7. Basic And Applied research • Basic research, is conducted to investigate issues relevant to the confirmation of theoretical or empirical positions. The major goal of basic research is to acquire general information about phenomenon. FE, chemistry, physics, botanic. • Applied research, the focus of applied research is to investigate a problem based in the real world. Applied research can be found in the areas of clinical, environmental, and industrial psychology

8. One.. What Exactly is Research? • Research studies come in many different forms. Two of the most common types of research: • A.Correlational research: The goal is to determine whether two or more variables are related. (‘Variable’ is a term with that can take on different values, such a weight, time, height …). There are several different types of correlation (Chapter 5) • B.Experimental research: involves comparing two group on one outcome measure to test some hypotesis regarding causation. One group is the experimental group, other is the control group

9. One.. Overview of Science and The Scientific Method Science can be defined as a methodological and systematic approach to the acquisition of new knowledge.Systematic, control and method. Scientific knowledge is not based on the opinions, feelings, or intuition of the scientist. Instead, scientific knowledge is based on objective data that were reliable obtained in the context of a cerefully designed research study. Scientific methods: is best thought of as an approche to the acquisition of new knowledge, and this approach effectively distinguishes science from nonscience. It isn’t a single method. Scientific methods most agree that it is characterized by the Empirical approach, observation, question, hipotheses, experiments, analyses, conclusion and replication

10. The Research Process – a Process Perspective Figure 3.1 The research process

11. One.. Overview of Science and The Scientific Method • Empirical Approach is an evidence-based approach that relies on direct observation and experimentation in the acquisition of new knowledge. In this approach, scientific decision are made based on data derived from direct observation and experimentation. • Observation refers to two distinct concepts –being aware of the world around us and making careful measurements. - Observation of the world around us can offen provide with many ideas for research studies. - Avoid making biased observation. - An important aspect of measurement is operational definitiation. What is exercise?

12. Questions: After getting a research idea, next step involves translating the research idea into an answerable question. ‘answerable’ particulary important, and it should not be overlooked. • Hypotheses: is simply an educated and testable guess about the answer to your research question. A key feature of all hypotheses is that each must make a prediction • Experiment -or research study: Research would collect data for hypotheses • Analyses: generally calls for statistical techniques. • Conclusions: After analyzing the data and determining whether to reject the null hypothesis, the researcher is now in a position to draw some conclusions about the results of the study. It statistically significant effect or not • Replications: essentially means conducting the same research study a second time with another group .

13. Null hypothesis always predict that there will be no difference between the groups. Rejecting the null hypothesis mean that there is a difference between groups. *Ho is reject* • There are 2 types of errors, • Type 1. researcher concludes There is difference between groups, in fact there is no difference *falce positive*. • Type 2. researcher concludes There is not a difference between groups, in fact there is a difference *falce negative*

14. One.. Goals of Scientific Research • Description: refers to the process of defining, classifying, or categorizing phenomena of interest. • Quantitative or Qualitative • Quantitative research: involves studies that make use of statistical analises to obtain their findings. Key features include formal and systematic measurement and the use of statistics • Qualitative research involves studies that do not attempt to quantify their results through statistical summary or analysis. Interviews and observations without formal measurement.

15. Nomothetic or Idiographic • The Nomothetic approach uses the study of groups to identify general laws that apply to large group of people. • The idiographic approach is the study of an individual. • The population: is all individual of interest to the researcher. • The sample: is a subset of the population • Positive correlation between two variables means that both variables change in the same direction (either both increase or both decrease) • Negative (inverse) correlation between two variables means that as one variable increases, the other variable decreases.

16. The difference in emphasis in qualitative versus quantitative methods Table 8.1 The difference in emphasis in qualitative versus quantitative methods Source: Based on Reichardt and Cook (1979).

17. One.. Goals of Scientific Research • Prediction:To be able to predict future events before they occur, then guessing the answers before the answers. • Understanding/explanation: true understanding of a phenomenon is achieved only when researchers successfully identify the cause or causes of the phenomenon.

18. Prediction, Understanding/ explanation

19. CHOOSING A RESEARCH TOPIC • The first step in designing any research study is deciding what to study. • Researcher choose the topics that they study in a variety of vays, and their decisions are necessarily influenced by several factors. For example, scientific field (management, biology, physics, medicine…) • Training and experience, and it typically takes many years to develop an area of expertice. • It is highly unlike that a botanist would coose to study quantum physics or macroeconomics. • What about I or T. And team work (%50+%50).

21. How researchers choose the topics ‘1.Interest’ • Interest: researchers typically coose research topics that are of interest to them. • A reseracher’s basic curiosity about an observed phenomenon typically provides sufficient motivation for choosing a research topic

22. How researchers choose the topics • 2. Problem solving: In each of research studies, researchers are attempting to solve some specific problem, such as work-related stress… • 3. Previous research: researchers also choose research topics based on the results of prior research, whether conducted by them or by someone else. • Password is ‘RESEARCH BEGETS RESEARCH’ • 4. Theory: theories often serve as a good source for research ideas. Research ideas should be based on some theory. Theory makes a prediction

23. LITERATURE REVIEV • Once a researcher has chosen a specific topic, the next step in planning phase of research study is reviewing the existing literature (book, journal articles…) in that topic area. • Fortunately, the development of comrehensive electronic databases has facilitated the process of conducting literature reviews. • Researcher can change the focus or methodology of their studies based on the types that have already been conducted.

24. FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM Good research problem must meet three criteria: • a. The research problem should describe the relationship between two or more variable • b. The research problem should take the form of a question. • c. The research problem must be capable of being tested empirically (ie., with data derived from direct observation and experimentation)

25. ARTICULATING HYPOTHESES Next step is articulating the hypotheses that will be tested • Hypotheses attempt to explain, predict, and explore the phenomenon of interest • There are two importent points: first, all hypotheses must be falsifiable; second a hypotheses must make a prediction (usually one or two variable) • Null hypotheses (Ho): always predicts that there will be no differences between the groups being studied. • By contrast, the alternate hypotheses (H1) always predicts that there will be a difference between the groups. • In scientific research, null hypotheses is tested, and then the null hipotheses is either confirmed or refuged (some times rejected or not rejected)

26. Control Group The control group is exposed to the same conditions as the experimental group, except for the variable being tested. All experiments should have a control group.

27. Directional Hypotheses and Nondirectional Hypotheses: • It’s second category of research hypotheses • Researcher has some idea about how the groups being studied will differ. • Researchers use nondirectional hypotheses when they belive that the groups will differ, but they do not have a belief regarding how the groups will differ. They don’t know the direction of differences. Examples: nondirectional hypotheses • H:there is a significant differences between night worker (product/h) and day’s worker (product/h). By contrast, researchers use directional hypotheses when they belive that the groups being studied will differ, and theyhave a belief regarding how the groups will differ. They know the direction of differences. Example:Directional Hypotheses: H:night worker produce (product/h) more than day’s worker (product/h).

28. Do you know the difference between the independent and dependent variables?

29. CHOOSING VARIABLES TO STUDY Independent Variables vs. Dependent Variables: • The independent variable (independent) is the factor that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher. Mostly researcher are interested in the effect of it. • The dependent variable (dependent) is a measure of the effect (if any) of the independent variable. Categorical Variables vs. Continuous Variables • Categorical variables are variables that can take on specific values only within a defined range of value. Gender (male/female), hair colour (blonde/brunette/ redhead) marital status (single/married/divorced). • Continuous variables are variable that can theoretically take on any value along a continuum. Age, weight. Quantitative Variables vs. Qualitative Variables • Qualitative variables are variable that vary in kind. Attractive/not attractive, helpful/not helpful, consistent/not consistent • Quantitative variables are those that vary in amount.

30. Two methods of instruction Assessment Comparation Which method is effective? A, or B Group A Group A Independent variable Dependent variable Students Group B Group B Experimental research

31. RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS • Number, kind of participants? • Selecting Study Participants • Random selection: is a procedure through which a sample of participants is chosen from the population of interest in such a way that each member of the population has an equel probability of being selected to participate in the study. • Random assignment: Assigning study participants to groups within the study (Population:400 male, 100 famile, group must be %75 M, %25 FM)

32. GENERAL APPROACHES FOR CONTROLLING ARTIFACT AND BIAS • The primary purpose of research design is to eliminate source of bias. • Confounds are general names that source of artifact and bias. • Reduce the impact of artifact and bias. • The strategies should be considered EARLY in the design phase.

33. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO VALIDITY • Validity refers to the conceptual an scientific soundness of research study or investigation, and the primary purpose of all forms of research is to produce valid conclusions. • Validity is related to research methodology Four Types of Validity • Internal validity: refers to the ability of research design to rule out or make implausible alternative explanations of the results • External validity: refers to the generalizability of the results of a research study. • Construct validity: refers to the basis of the causal relationship • Statistical validity: refers to aspect of quantitative evaluation that affect the accuracy of the conclusion drawn from the results of a study

34. Methods for controlling sources of artifact and bias • Statistical control • Control and comparison group • Random selection • Random assignment • Experimental design For example, research pareticipants bring a wide variety of phisical, emotional traits into the research contex. These different characteristics can directly affect the results of a study.

35. Experimental Bias • Ironically, the researchers themselves are the first common source of artifact and bias. • These biases are particularly pravalent in studies in which a single researcher is responsible for generating the hypotheses, disigning the study and collecting and analizing the data.

36. Factors influencing research Figure 2.3 Factors influencing research Source: Forcese, Dennis P.; Richer, Stephen, Social Research Methods, 1st edition  1973. Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

37. Strategies for minimizing experimenter effects • Carefully control or standardize all experimental procedures. • Provide training and education to all the researchers involved in this study • Minimize dual or multiple roles within the study • Checks, and balances and quality control procedures, whenever possible. • Automate procedures, whenever possible • Conduct data collection • Choice of statistical analyses. • Limit the knowledge that researchers and participants are not receiving experimental manipulation.

38. Approaches for limiting researcher’ knowledge of participant assignment Each of the procedures seeks to reduce or minimize the researcher’s knowledge about the participants and about which experimental conditions they are assigned to. • Double-blind technique: neither the participants nor the researchers know which experimental or control condition research participants are assigned to. • Blind technique: only the researcher be kept ‘blind’ regarding which treatment or control conditions the participants are in. • Partial-blind technique: this is similar to the blind technique, except that the researcher is kept blind regarding participant selection for only a portion of the study.

39. Participant effects “Participant effects” are a source of artifact and bias stemming from a variety of factors related to the unique motives, attitudes, and behaviors that participants bring to any research study. The “good” participant might attempt to provide information and responses that might be helpful to the study, The “negative” participant might try to provide information that might confound or undermine it, The “faithful” participant might try to act without bias, while the “apprehensive” participant might try to distors his or her responses in a way that portrays him or her in an overly positive or fovorable light

40. Controlling participants effects Double-blind technicque Deception technicque: when researchers use deception, it usually takes the form of providing participants with misinformation about the true hypotheses of interest or the focus of the study. Inquiry: The researcher can simply ask the participants about any number of issues related to participant effects and the overall purpose and hypotheses of the study.

41. Random assignment • Potential artifact_experimenter; bias_participant effects • The basic purpose of random assignment is to obtain equivalence among groups. • RA is a control technique in which all participants have an equal likelihood of being assigned to any of the experimental or control groups. • RA increases internal validity because it distrubutes or equalizes potential confounds across experimental and control groups. • Studies that use random assignment are referred to as true experiments, while studies that do not use random assignment are referred to as quasi experiments.

42. Holding variables constant • Common method for holding the influence of a specific variable or variables constant in a study is refered to as matching. • For exam: we have two group; experimental and control • Blocking: unlike matching, is an approach that allows the researchers to determine what specific impact the variable in question is having on the depent variable. There are two independent variables: experimental (impaired and adequate) and control (impaired and adequate).

43. Statistical approaches • Final method • One statistical approach for determining equivalence between groups is to use simple analyses of means and standard deviations for the variables of interestfor each group in the study • A means is simply an average score • A standard deviation is a measure of variability indicating the average amount that scores vary from the mean.

44. Research Never Stops Figure 2.2 The wheel of research

45. Four. Data Collection, Assesment Methods, And Measurement Strategies-Measurement • Measurement is a critical juncture between scientific theory and application and describe, explain and predict the phenomena. • Measurement is important in research design in two critical areas. First, measurement allows researchers to quantify abstract construct and variables. Second, the level of statistical sophistication used to analyze data derived from a study is directly dependent on the scala of mesaurement used to quantify the variables of interest.

46. Scales of Measurements • There are four main scales of measurement subsumed under the broader categories of nonmetric(nonmetric data, cannot be quantified and used to describe and categorize) and metric (metric data are used to examine amounts and magnitudes) measurement,1.nominal scales, 2. ordinal scales, 3. interval scales, and 4. ratio scales. Nominal and ordinal scales are nonmetric measurement scales. • Nominal scales, gender, religious and political affiliation, marital status. • Ordinal scales, built on nominal measurement. Examples would be finishing position of runners in race (greater than or less than)

47. Interval scales of measurements are quantitative in nature, built on ordinal measurement, numbers scaled at equal distances, no absolute zero point, examples include temperature measured in Fahrenheit and Celsius. • Ratio scales include height, weight, and time. Numerous examples of ratio scale data exist in our daily lives. It is possible to have to zero point.

48. Scales of Measurement Table 6.1 Scales of measurement

49. Presentation:Writing the Final Report Guidelines • Audience • Good communication • Language and flow • Form and style • Headings

50. Presentation:Structure of the report • Title page • Table of contents • Executive summary • Introduction and problem statement • Theoretical background • Methodology • Findings of empirical study • Conclusions and recommendations • Footnotes • Bibliography or references • Appendix