Transmission of Nerve Impulses

1. Transmission of Nerve Impulses Honors Anatomy & Physiology

2. Electrical Signals in Neurons • neurons are electrically excitable • 2 types of electrical signals: • graded potentials • only for short distance communication • action potentials • allow communication over both short & long distances

3. Graded & Action Potentials • both depend on 2 basic features of plasma membrane in excitable cells: • existence of a resting membrane potential • presence of specific ion channels

4. Membrane Potentials • electrical voltage difference across the membrane • flow of ions thru ion channels => flow of current

5. Ion Channels • when open: allow specific ions to move across plasma membrane down their electrochemical gradient by diffusion • ions move down their concentration gradient & (+) charged cations move toward (-) charged anions

6. Ion Channels • 4 types: • leakage channels • voltage-gated channels • ligand-gated channels • mechanically gated channels

7. Leakage Ion Channels • channels randomly alternate (open/close) • typically are more K+ leakage channels than Na+ & K+ channels are leakier than Na+ • (so membranes more permeable to K+ than Na+)

8. Voltage-Gated Channels • open in response to change in membrane potential • important in generation & conduction of action potentials

10. Ligand-Gated Channels • open/ close in response to a specific chemical stimulus • ligands include: • neurotransmitters • hormones • particular ions • work in 1 of 2 ways: • directly: ligand molecule itself opens/closes gate • indirectly: ligand activates another molecule which in turn opens/closes gate

11. Mechanically Gated Channels • gates open/close in response to mechanical stimulation in form of: • vibration (sound waves) • pressure (touch) • tissue stretching

13. Resting Membrane Potential • exists because there is small build-up of (-) charge just inside plasma membrane  small build-up of (+) charge just outside membrane • separation of charge source of PE • greater the difference in charge the larger the membrane potential (voltage)

14. Resting Membrane Potential • neurons: membrane potentials range from • -90 mv to -40 mv • (-) indicates the inside of cell is (-) relative to the outside • cells with membrane potential are said to be polarized • most body cells are polarized with membrane potentials vary from +5 mv to -100 mv

16. Resting Potential Animation • http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/electricalsignaling.html

17. Generation of Action Potentials (AP) • 2 phases: (lasts ~ 1msec) • Depolarizing Phase • (-) membrane becomes less (-) • Repolarizing Phase • normal membrane potential restored

18. AP Voltage-Gated Channels • 2 types of voltage-gated channels open & then close: • present mainly in axon plasma membrane & axon terminals • 1st to open: Na+ • Na+ rushes into cell • causes depolarization • then K+ channels open • K+ flows out of cell • produces repolarizing phase

19. Action Potential Characteristics • “all-or-none” principle • threshold: (~ -55mv) must be reached for AP to occur

20. Action Potentials • http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter14/animation__the_nerve_impulse.html

22. Refractory Period • period of time after an AP begins during which an excitable cell cannot generate another action potential

23. Propagation of Nerve Impulses • AP must travel from trigger zone  axon terminal • this mode of travel called propagation or conduction • uses (+) feedback • when Na+ flows into cell it causes voltage-gated Na+ channels in adjacent segments to open

24. Neurotoxins • substances that produce their poisonous effects by acting on nervous system • Japanese pufferfish: produces very lethal neurotoxin TTX (tetrodotoxin) which blocks AP by inserting itself into voltage-gated Na+ channels so they cannot open

25. Local Anesthetics • drugs that block pain & other somatic sensations • cold applied to area also produces anesthetic effect: axons propagate slower • ice partially blocks axon propagation of pain • examples: • Lidocaine, Novacaine • act by blocking the opening of voltage-gated Na+ channels: • sensory nerve impulses cannot travel past obstructed region so pain signals never make it to the brain

26. Conduction • 2 types: • Continuous Conduction • Saltatory Conduction • http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/matthews/actionp.html • http://www.siumed.edu/~dking2/ssb/saltcon.htm

28. Effect of Axon Diameter • larger diameter axons propagate impulses faster than smaller diameter ones due to larger surface area • Classified: • A-fibers: (5-20 μm) travel 12-130 m/s • used by somatic sensory neurons & motor neurons • B-fibers: (2-3 μm) travel 15 m/s • found in sensory neurons going from viscera  brain • C-fibers: ( .5-1.5 μm) travel 0.5 – 2 m/s • all unmyelinated, found in some sensory for pain from skin and viscera & in autonomic motor fibers

29. Axon Diameter & Conduction Speed

30. Signal Transmission @ Synapses • presynaptic neuron: neuron sending the AP • postsynaptic neuron: neuron receiving the AP • synapse: space between the 2 • synapses can be: • electrical • chemical

31. Electrical Gap Junctions • common in visceral smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, & in developing embryo • 2 advantages to electrical synapses • faster communication • AP passes directly from presynaptic neuron  postsynaptic neuron • synchronization • electrical synapses can coordinate the activity of a group of neurons or muscle fibers

32. Chemical Synapses • synaptic cleft: space between filled with interstitial fluid • in response to AP axon terminal of presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters that diffuse across the synaptic cleft bind to receptors in plasma membrane of postsynaptic neuron  producing a postsynaptic potential • electrical signal (AP)  chemical signal (neurotransmitters)  electrical signal (AP)

33. Signal Transmission at a Chemical Synapse

34. Transmission of AP across Synapse • http://www.mind.ilstu.edu/flash/synapse_1.swf

35. Removal of Neurotransmitter • occurs in 3 ways: • diffusion • enzymatic degradation • uptake by cells

37. Neurotransmitters • 2 classes: • small-molecule neurotransmitters • neuropeptides

39. Plasticity in Nervous System • nervous system exhibits plasticity: capability to change based on experience • @ level of individual neurons: • sprouting new dendrites • synthesis of new proteins • changes in synaptic contacts with other neurons

40. Regeneration in Nervous System • limited capacity to replicate or repair itself • until recently: thought was little or no repair done to damage in CNS: have found neuroglial cells more capable of this than previously appreciated • PNS: as long as cell body intact & Schwann cell active new axon can be regenerated

41. Damage & Repair of a Neuron

42. Homeostatic Imbalances in the Nervous System • Multiple Sclerosis (MS) • progressive destruction of myelin sheaths of neurons in the CNS • autoimmune disorder • afflicts ~ 350,000 in USA (estimated) with: • >2x female/male • white > other races • diagnosis difficult but most diagnosed ages 20 - 50

43. MS

44. MS Causes? • unknown but do see: • genetic susceptibility: having 1st degree relative with it increases your chances several-fold • possible association to living farther away from equator (?) so maybe something to do with vitamin D • possible association with history of herpes-6, Epstein Barr virus, chlamydia

45. Epilepsy • characterized by short, recurrent attacks of motor, sensory, or psychological malfunction • afflict ~1% of world’s population • http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xaigxc_brain-animation-of-epileptic-seizu_creation#.UaPsb0B-8TY

46. Causes of Epilepsy • brain damage • most frequently from birth trauma • metabolic disturbances • hypoglycemia, hypocalcemia, uremia, hypoxia • infections • encephalitis or meningitis • toxins • alcohol, tranquilizers, hallucinogens • head injuries • tumors & abcesses of the brain

47. Medical Terminology • Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS) • acute demyelinating disorder in which macrophages strip axons of myelin in PNS • may be response of immune system to bacterial infection • Neuroblastoma • most common tumor in infants • immature neurons (neuroblasts) grow in abdomen or adrenals • Neuropathy • any disorder that affects the nervous system but particularly a disorder of a cranial or spinal nerve example: Bell’s palsy