Starter - Why did the British make the CAF in 1953?

1. Why was the Central African Federation founded? C aim – to explain and begin to analyse why the CAF was foundedB/A aim – to analyse why the CAF was founded and identify some of its strengths and weaknesses • Starter - Why did the British make the CAF in 1953? • Why did they make it a ‘federal realm of the British Crown’? The CAF was founded in 1953 as a ‘federal realm of the British Crown’ – it wasn’t completely a colony with no control over it’s internal politics, nor a dominion with complete control over it’s internal politics. The British Sovereign was represented by a governor general and it was hoped it would eventually become a dominion in the Commonwealth – like Australia or Canada,

2. How did Southern Africa’s relationship with Britain change over time? • CAF with Southern Rhodesia, to Rhodesia, to Zimbabwe • The Union of South Africa to the Republic of South Africa, independence, apartheid and the end of apartheid • Resistance and accommodation, metropole and periphery

3. The Federation was established on 1 August 1953, with the aim of forging a middle way between a fully independent majority-ruled state and the white-dominated territories of South Africa, Angola, and Mozambique. It was intended to be a permanent entity, but ultimately crumbled because the black African nationalists wanted a greater share of power than the dominant minority white population was willing to concede. It was hoped that the CAF would serve as a barrier to the expansion of white South Africa. The fact that federations had been established suggests that colonisation if anything strengthened after WWII. Add to your starter question Why did the CAF issue this stamp in 1953?

4. On 8 November 1950, the first negotiations for a federal state for the Rhodesias and Nyasaland began. While many points of contention were worked out in the conferences that followed, several proved to be acute, and some, seemingly insurmountable. The negotiations and conferences were arduous. Southern Rhodesia and the Northern Territories had very different traditions for the 'Native Question' (black Africans) and the roles they were designed to play in civil society. An agreement would likely not have been reached without Sir Andrew Cohen, CO Assistant Undersecretary for African Affairs. He became one of the central architects and driving forces behind the creation of the Federation, often seemingly singlehandedly untangling deadlocks and outright walkouts on the part of the respective parties. Cohen, who was Jewish and traumatized by the Holocaust, was an anti-racialist and an advocate of African rights. But he compromised his ideals to avoid what he saw as an even greater risk than the continuation of the paternalistic white ascendancy system of Southern Rhodesia – its becoming an even less flexible, radical white supremacy, like the National Party government in South Africa. Historian Robert Blake writes, "In that sense, Apartheid can be regarded as the father of Federation.“ It took nearly three years for the CAF to be established. To what extent was Cohen responsible for the founding of the CAF and it’s multiracialism?

5. It was commonly understood that Southern Rhodesia would be the dominant territory in the federation – economically, electorally, and militarily. How much so defined much of the lengthy constitutional negotiations and modifications that followed. African political opposition and nationalist aspirations, for the time, were mute. Huggins was the first PM for Southern Rhodesia and wanted a complete amalgamation ( to join together the three dominions as one) but Britain were not keen on this as it would mean Southern Rhodesia would completely dominate the federation). The British were also becoming sympathetic to black Africans needs. It was convenient to have all three territories colonised by Cecil Rhodes under one constitution. But, for Huggins and the Rhodesian establishment, the central economic motive behind the CAF (or amalgamation) had always been the abundant copper deposits of Northern Rhodesia. Unlike the Rhodesias, Nyasaland had no sizeable deposits of minerals and its tiny community of Europeans, largely Scottish, was relatively sympathetic to African aspirations. Its inclusion in the Federation was always more a symbolic gesture than a practical necessity. Ironically, it was to be largely Nyasaland and its African population where the impetus for destabilization of the CAF arose, leading to its dissolution. • What do you notice about the population of the three protectorates? What problems might this cause? • What other problems may the CAF encounter?

6. Following the insistences and reassurances of Southern Rhodesian Prime Minister, Sir Godfrey Martin Huggins, a little more than 25,000 white Southern Rhodesians voted in a referendum for a federal government, versus nearly 15,000 against.Africans in all three territories were resolutely against it. The semi-independent federation was finally established, with five branches of government: one Federal, three Territorial, and one British. This often translated into confusion and jurisdictional rivalry among various levels of government. According to Blake, it proved to be "one of the most elaborately governed countries in the world." Despite its convoluted government structure, the CAF economy was a success. In the first year of the federation, its GDP was an impressive £350 million; two years later it was nearly £450 million.Yet the average income of a European remained approximately ten times that of an African employed in the cash economy, representing only one third of local Africans. What were the key CAF’s strengths and weaknesses in general? What were the key CAF’s strengths and weaknesses for white Africans? What were the key CAF’s strengths and weaknesses for black Africans?

7. Strengths Weaknesses General White Africans Black Africans

8. Why was the Central African Federation founded? C aim – to explain and begin to analyse why the CAF was foundedB/A aim – to analyse why the CAF was founded and identify some of its strengths and weaknesses • Everyone – List three to four reasons for why the CAF was founded from the most important reason to the least important reason. Explain your reasons. • Overall, was the CAF a strong federation?

9. Why did the CAF dissolve? C aim – to explain why the CAF dissolved and describe Rhodesia’s relationship with BritainB/A aim – to analyse why the CAF dissolved and explain Rhodesia’s relationship with Britain What does this quote suggest about Ian Smith’s attitude? He was the PM of Southern Rhodesia. How would this have affected his relationship with Britain? – remember in 1964 Labour had come into office with one man one vote.

10. African dissent in the CAF grew, and at the same time British circles expressed objections to its structure and purpose – full Commonwealth membership leading to independence. Members of the Commonwealth with black nationalist governments put pressure on Britain to enforce economic and trade sanctions, they did… half-heartedly, they never seriously tried to stop oil getting to CAF through Mozambique. Dissent also grew as there were huge amounts of white settlers in the CAF. Harsh colour-bars and pass laws were enforce. The best land was reserved for European agriculture and industry. With the second colonial invasion of immigrant settlers peasants were evicted in a huge number. Compulsory labour was employed and only whites could own land. By 1948 only 258 Africans were registered in an electorate of 47,000. In June 1956, Northern Rhodesia’s Governor, Sir Arthur Benson, wrote a highly confidential letter heavily criticizing the federation in general (and the new constitution planned for it) and Federal Prime Minister, Sir Roy Welensky, in particular. Nearly two years later, Huggins (now Lord Malvern) somehow obtained a copy of it and disclosed its contents to Welensky. Relations between Whitehall and the CAF cabinet were never to recover. These events, for the first time brought the attention of British Conservative Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, to a crisis emerging in the CAF, but apparently he did not fully comprehend the gravity of the situation, attributing the row to the old CO-CRO rivalry and to Welensky taking personal offence to the letter’s contents. Write on a post-it note(s) why the CAF might dissolve… Write on a separate post-it note about the relationship between the CAF and Britain…

11. Meanwhile, towards the end of the decade, in the Northern Territories, Africans protested against the white minority rule of CAF. In July 1958, Dr. Hastings Banda, the leader of African National Congress (ANC) of Nyasaland returned to Nyasaland, and nationalist movements grew in Northern Rhodesia. The CAF banned them and imprisoned the leaders. In early 1959, unrest broke out in Nyasaland, which, according to historian Robert Blake, was "economically the poorest, politically the most advanced and numerically the least Europeanized of the three Territories." Write on a post-it note(s) why the CAF might dissolve… Write on a separate post-it note about the relationship between the CAF and Britain…

12. The affair drew the whole concept of the federation into question and even Macmillan began to express misgivings about its political viability, although economically, he felt it was sound. A Royal Commission to advise Macmillan on the future of the CAF, to be led by Walter Monckton, was in the works. In the late 1950s. Welenskyat least found Douglas-Home in support of the existence of the CAF. By contrast, Douglas-Home’s rival, Iain Macleod, favoured African rights and dissolving the federation. He became Colonial Secretary in 1964. Although Macmillan at the time supported Douglas-Home, the changes were already on the horizon. In Britain, Macmillan said that it was essential "to keep the Tory party on modern and progressive lines", noting electoral developments and especially the rise of the Liberal Party. By the early 1960s, Macmillan went on his famous African tour leading to his Wind of Change speech in the parliament of the Cape. Change was well underway and he was giving the message to South Africa and Rhodesia that black nationalist rule was inevitable. Write on a post-it note(s) why the CAF might dissolve… Write on a separate post-it note about the relationship between the CAF and Britain…

13. The new Commonwealth Secretary, Duncan Sandys, negotiated the '1961 Constitution', a new constitution for the CAF which greatly reduced Britain's powers over it. By 1962, the British and the CAF cabinet had agreed that Nyasaland should be allowed to secede. In 1963 the same status was given to Northern Rhodesia, decisively ending the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in the immediate future. In 1963, the Victoria Falls conference was held, partly as a last effort to save the CAF, and partly as a forum to dissolve it. After nearly collapsing several times, it ended by 5 July 1963, and the state was virtually dissolved. Only the appropriation of its assets remained as a formality. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jvA-vIYMlYI By 31 December, the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was formally dissolved and its assets distributed among the territorial governments. Southern Rhodesia obtained the vast majority of these including the assets of the Federal army, to which it had overwhelmingly contributed. In 1964, Northern Rhodesia gained independence as the Republic of Zambia, obtaining majority rule and led by Kenneth Kaunda. The same year, the Nyasaland Protectorate became the Republic of Malawi led by Hastings Banda. Write on a post-it note(s) why the CAF might dissolve… Put them in order from the most important reason why the CAF dissolved at the top to the least important reason why the CAF dissolved at the bottom.

14. On 11 November 1965 Southern Rhodesia made a unilateral declaration of independence from the United Kingdom proposed by the Rhodesian Front government led by Prime Minister Ian Smith. They clearly did this with the intention of maintaining white minority rule and multi-racialism. It is thought that Rhodesia did this as Wilson had publicly said he would not use force to stop them doing this due to British ‘kith and kin’ living in Southern Rhodesia. Wilson didn’t want to rattle relations with South Africa, who supported this UDI of Southern Rhodesia, as they were a crucial trading partner due to their geographic position. Wilson also did not believe that Smith would actually declare Rhodesia’s independence due to the international hardships it would encounter – he thought it was just a strong negotiating technique – turns out he was wrong. Rhodesia was criticised internationally and faced economic, cultural and trade sanctions. Britain was also criticised for apparently letting independence happen despite it not following their own policy on “no independence before majority African rule”. The Commonwealth particularly criticised Britain. The Conservatives attacked Labour at home. • Create a voice-over for this clip. • You must include • Why the Rhodesian Front felt they could declare their independence • What their relations were like with Britain • You can do it neutrally, or from a particular opinion. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7R5ZJqdCqO0

15. Why did the CAF dissolve? C aim – to explain why the CAF dissolved and describe Rhodesia’s relationship with BritainB/A aim – to analyse why the CAF dissolved and explain Rhodesia’s relationship with Britain Using your post-it notes as prompts explain (C) or analyse (B/A – saying the most important reasons and why they are important) to your partner why the CAF dissolved. Using your post-it notes as prompts describe (C) or explain (B/A) Rhodesia’s relationship with Britain.

16. How far do you agree that Rhodesia declared its own independence due to Ian Smith?