Buddhism

1. Buddhism November 2012

2. Buddhism • Buddhism is the fourth-largest religion in the world, with somewhere between 600 million to one billion Buddhists worldwide • Difficulty in measuring is partly due to unclear distinctions between Buddhism and other Asian religions, especially in China • Buddhism is primarily concentrated in East Asia, although significant Buddhist populations also exist worldwide

3. Distribution of Buddhists Worldwide

4. Buddhism Timeline c. 5th century BCE: Life of Siddhartha Gautama c. 258 BCE: North Indian King Ashoka converts to Buddhism, begins spreading the religion c. 200 BCE – 200 CE: Development of Theravada Buddhism c. 80 BCE: Pali Canon written down in Sri Lanka c. 50 CE: Buddhism reaches China, Southeast Asia c. 1st century CE: Development of Mahayana Buddhism

5. Buddhism Timeline c. 550: Buddhism reaches Japan 589-845: Buddhism flourishes in China c. 7th century: Buddhism becomes national religion of Tibet c. 1200-1500: Buddhism declines in India 1959: China invades Tibet; Dalai Lama and others escape to India 1986: Chögyam Trungpa establishes Shambhala Buddhist headquarters in Halifax, NS 1998: First full ordination of Buddhist nuns

6. Siddhartha Gautama • All details of the life of Siddhartha Gautama, the first Buddha, come from legends that developed centuries after his lifetime; as such, it is difficult to make definitive historical statements about his life • According to legend, Siddhartha Gautama was an Indian prince in the 5th century BCE • Fortune-tellers told his parents that the boy would grow to be either a great king or a holy man • Gautama’s parents raised him in a life of luxury, sheltering him from the cruelties of life

7. Gautama Buddha • In time, Gautama saw “four sights:” an old man, a sick person, a corpse, and an ascetic • Dissatisfied with his life of luxury, Gautama left his home, wife, and son, and became an ascetic, seeking liberation from suffering • Gautama first studied with a brahmin teacher, and then practiced extreme self-denial • When these techniques did not work, Gautama sought a “Middle Way” between self-indulgence and self-denial • Gautama sat beneath the “Bodhi Tree” until he reached enlightenment, becoming the first Buddha, or “Awakened One” • Siddhartha Gautama is sometimes known as Gautama Buddha or Shakyamuni (“Sage of the Shakya Tribe”) Buddha

8. Gautama Buddha • After his meditation, the Buddha realized the nature and origins of human suffering, and the techniques necessary to end it • Although tempted by Mara (a demon) to keep his insights to himself, the Buddha began to spreading his teachings, called the Dharma, to students • The Buddha spent the next forty-five years of his life as a mendicant (wandering beggar) teaching the Dharma • The Buddha’s disciples became a monastic community known as the Sangha • While revered as the enlightened founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama is not worshipped as a god by Buddhists

10. Three Marks of Existence • Buddhism teaches that there are three “marks,” or characteristics, of existence which are experienced by all sentient beings • Duhkha: suffering or dissatisfaction. Nothing existing in the world can bring lasting satisfaction • Anitya: impermanence. Everything in the world is in a state of constant transition • Anatman: non-self. There is no constant or immortal self – a person is a composite of different physical and mental components, and is in a constant state of flux

11. The Four Noble Truths • The teachings attributed to the Buddha are practical, rather than speculative; they describe a path to enlightenment and freedom from suffering rather than describing the nature of the universe and the afterlife • The foundation for the Buddha’s teaching is the “Four Noble Truths” • Life inevitably involves suffering (duhkha) • Suffering is caused by craving and ignorance • Suffering ends when craving ends • To end craving, one must follow the Noble Eightfold Path

12. The Noble Eightfold Path • The Noble Eightfold Path is a technique of personal discipline put forward by the Buddha for his followers to attain enlightenment. • Right understanding: comprehending the nature of reality through the Four Noble Truths • Right intention: overcoming self-centredness • Right speech: avoiding lying, harsh speech, and gossip, and using communication for truth and harmony • Right action: avoiding killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and intoxicants • Right livelihood: choosing a way of life that does not violate the five ethical principles described above • Right effort: striving continually to live wholesomely • Right mindfulness: being constantly aware of one’s mind and surroundings • Right meditation: practising mental discipline

13. Buddhist Beliefs • Buddhism originated out of North India’s Vedic worldview • While Buddhism rejects the authority of the Vedas, it retains certain concepts from the Vedic religion, reinterpreting them according to Buddhist thought • Buddhism accepts samsara as the cycle of constant transition – birth, death and rebirth • Nirvana is release from samsara. The word means “blowing out” (of a flame). Nirvana is freedom from suffering – the “far shore” from samsara for which the Dharma is a raft. One is not reborn and consciousness ceases • The Buddha says little about the nature of the afterlife, instead giving the Sangha instructions on seeking nirvana

14. Buddhist Beliefs • Karma: Buddhism accepts the law of cause and effect. Existence is in constant flux, and every action produces a reaction. Good deeds purify the mind, and unwholesome deeds increase ignorance • Reincarnation: Although there is no permanent self in Buddhism, rebirth is nevertheless accepted. Just as an individual is in a state of transition during his or her lifetime, karma leads to the rebirth of a new consciousness that is neither completely identical nor completely distinct from the previous life. Depending on karma, a person may be reborn in a state that is more or less likely to lead to nirvana

16. Branches of Buddhism • In the centuries after the Buddha’s life, Buddhism spread from India into neighbouring cultures, gaining followers abroad as the brahmins of India reasserted the dominance of Hinduism • Buddhism began to take on different characteristics in different cultures • Two major schools of interpretation exist in Buddhism: • Theravada Buddhism (predominant in Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, Laos, and Sri Lanka) • Mahayana Buddhism (predominant in Tibet, China, Nepal, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and Mongolia)

18. Theravada Buddhism:“The Way of the Elders” • Theravada Buddhism is the oldest surviving school of Buddhism • There are approximately 100 million Theravadins worldwide, primarily in Southeast Asia • Theravada Buddhism emphasizes the monastic life, meditation, and study of the Pali Canon

19. The Pali Canon • Pali is an ancient Indian language similar to Sanskrit • Like Sanskrit, it is rarely spoken as a first language, and is used primarily for religious purposes • A canon is an authoritative collection of writings • The Pali Canon is a collection of ancient Buddhist scriptures • It is also called the Tipitaka, or “Three Baskets” (after an ancient practise of storing the scriptures, written on palm-leaf, in wicker baskets) • The Pali Canon is said to be the teachings of the Buddha himself, as well as his earliest disciples • Part of an oral tradition for many centuries; first written around 80 BCE

20. The Triple Gem “I go for refuge in the Buddha” “I go for refuge in the Dharma” “I go for refuge in the Sangha” • One becomes a Buddhist by making the above declaration • This is often chanted by Theravadins • The “Triple Gem” or “Three Jewels” are the Buddha, the Dharma (teachings of the Buddha), and the Sangha (Buddhist community, or community of the enlightened)

21. The Sangha • Monastic life is very important in Theravada Buddhism • Buddhist monks (bhikshus) shave their heads, wear simple robes, own few possessions, and practise celibacy • In Theravada Buddhism, monasteries are located within communities, and community members provide food and materials to monks, which is thought to bring good karma • In some areas, young men may take temporary vows during non-productive agricultural seasons

22. The Sangha • In early Theravada Buddhism, there were orders of bhikshunis (nuns), but these disappeared over the centuries (but survived in some Mahayana areas) • The Buddha claimed that women were equally capable as men of attaining nirvana • Nevertheless, bhikshunis received far less social support than bhikshus, and Buddhism took on increasingly patriarchal characteristics • In 1998, the first Theravada Buddhist nuns in almost a thousand years were ordained

23. Meditation • An important technique in Theravada Buddhism is vipassana (insight) meditation • In this form of meditation, one focuses one’s mind upon an aspect of breathing • One maintains an observer’s perspective on one’s own mind and body, noting thoughts and sensations as they arise, and then returning concentration to breath • Ideally, through meditation, one’s mind becomes disciplined and the true nature of existence becomes clear

24. Devotional Practices • In spite of the anti-ritualistic, psychological nature of Buddhism, many Buddhists engage in devotional rituals • While the Buddha is not worshipped as a god, he is sometimes seen as having protective and healing powers • Many Buddhists honour images of the Buddha, including statues • These may be consecrated and given offerings • Relics of the Buddha are also seen as having special power • Buddhist monks and nuns frequently preside over ceremonies such as funerals, agricultural festivals, etc.

25. Mahayana Buddhism:“The Great Vehicle” • Mahayana Buddhism developed later than Theravada Buddhism, beginning around the 1st century CE • It recognizes the Pali Canon but adds a variety of new texts and ideas • Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes the importance of personal experience • While monastic life is still central in many forms of Mahayana Buddhism, enlightenment is available to individuals outside of the monastic community as well • Mahayana Buddhists sometimes refer to Theravada Buddhism as Hinayana – “the lesser vehicle,” as its emphasis is more limited to the monastic community rather than all people • There are many distinct schools of Mahayana Buddhism, including Zen Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Pure Land Buddhism, Nichiren Buddhism, and Shambhala Buddhism

26. Bodhisattvas • Beginning with the Lotus Sutra, some Mahayana texts claim that a higher goal than nirvana is to become a bodhisattva. • A bodhisattva is a being who has achieved enlightenment, but delays entering the non-being of nirvana in order to help all sentient beings achieve enlightenment • Various bodhisattvas are believed to exist and may be called upon for intercession

27. Avalokiteshvara, Bodhisattva of Compassion

28. Three Bodies of the Buddha • Mahayana Buddhism has a long tradition of complex philosophy and metaphysics, the interpretation of which varies from school to school • The Mahayana Buddhist understanding of the nature of the Buddha differs from that of Theravada Buddhism, in which the Buddha was a mortal human who achieved enlightenment • In Mahayana Buddhism, a Buddha has three “bodies” or forms: • The physical body – a Buddha’s earthly form (for example, Siddhartha Gautama). Many Buddhas have appeared throughout history • The body of bliss/light – the heavenly body of a Buddha which exists in celestial realms • The body of truth – Buddha also exists as pure, formless wisdom

29. Emptiness • A core doctrine of Mahayana Buddhism is the doctrine of sunyata (emptiness) • This concept, elaborated by the 2nd and 3rd century philosopher Nagarjuna, is interpreted differently from school to school • Sunyata states that everything in the world, including people, do not exist in any permanent way, but are temporary manifestations of various causes and effects • For this reason, attachment leads to suffering • Buddhists argue that sunyata does not lead to nihilism, but instead offers a realistic understanding of the world that leads to freedom from suffering • Because all existence is in a state of constant flux based on laws of cause and effect, good deeds will bring good effects to the world • While all beings are said to have Buddha-nature, this is less a permanent essence than a potential

30. Bodhisattva Vow Beings are infinite in number; I vow to save them all The obstructive passions are endless in number; I vow to end them all The teachings for saving others are countless; I vow to learn them all Buddhahood is the supreme achievement; I vow to attain it

31. Mahayana Sutras • Two of the most widely-used texts in Mahayana Buddhism are the Heart Sutra and the Lotus Sutras • In its current form, the Lotus Sutra probably dates to the 3rd century CE • It is presented as the teachings of the Gautama Buddha which was kept for centuries in the realm of the nagas (snake demons) • It describes the nature of Buddhas and bodhisattvas • The Heart Sutra, or Essence of Wisdom Sutra, dates back to at least the 7th century CE • It is very important to Tibetan Buddhism, and also to Chan/Zen Buddhism • It discusses emptiness (sunyata) and the experience of enlightenment • It is presented as teachings by the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara • The Heart Sutra includes the famous mantra: • Gate gate paragate parasamgate bodhi svaha (roughly, “Go, go, go beyond, go thoroughly beyond, and establish yourself in enlightenment”)

32. Chan/Zen • One variation of Buddhism is Zen (as it is known in Japan), called Chan in Chinese • Central to the practice of Zen is zazen, or sitting meditation • In Zen, the direct, lasting, meditative experience of the nature of reality (satori) is more important than scriptures or Buddhas • A Zen Buddhist may also experience a sudden, temporary flash of awareness of the interrelatedness of all existence, which is called kensho

33. Zen Techniques • In addition to zazen, different techniques are used to achieve enlightenment • Calligraphy is a traditional Zen art form • In calligraphy, one’s brushstrokes must be confident and effortless, arising from a clear mind • Similarly, the traditional Japanese tea ceremony draws upon Zen philosophy

34. Koans • Zen Buddhists are encouraged to meditate upon koans – riddles with no answer – as a technique of meditation • “Two hands clap and there is a sound. What is the sound of one hand?” • Q: “What is the Buddha?” A: “Three pounds of flax” • “What was your original face before your parents were born?” • “If you meet the Buddha on the street, kill him.” • Like calligraphy, too much effort will not bring success with koans; only a clear, open mind will be able to grasp what is being said in them about the true nature of reality

35. Zen in the West • The Zen scholar D.T. Suzuki brought Zen to mainstream European and North American attention in the early 20th century • Due to the influence of writers such as Alan Watts and Jack Kerouac, Zen Buddhism became popular among young Westerners seeking an alternative to traditional Western religion • Interest in Zen was particularly widespread among the “Beat Generation” (1950s counterculture)

36. Other Japanese Buddhist Schools • Pure Land Buddhism: a form of Buddhism focused upon devotion to the Amida Buddha, the Buddha of Boundless Light • According to Pure Land Buddhism, Amida Buddha created a Pure Land of Bliss, where devotees go at death • Nichiren Buddhism: named after Nichiren, a 13th century sage • Nichiren Buddhism is based upon the Lotus Sutra, a key text in Mahayana Buddhism • Non-violence is extremely important in Nichiren Buddhism, and its contemporary offshoots, such as Soka Gakkai International, work towards world peace and justice through the development of individual consciousness

37. Vajrayana Buddhism • Vajrayana Buddhism is a branch of Mahayana Buddhism that is primarily practiced in Tibet • Vajrayana makes use of esoteric, tantric practices with the intention of achieving enlightenment within a single lifetime • Several schools of Tibetan Buddhism exist • Tibetan Buddhism has a long history of interaction with Bön, a shamanic religion indigenous to Tibet, and some elements of Bön exist within Tibetan Buddhist practices

38. Tibetan Buddhist Practices • Tibetan Buddhism strives to clear away the “gross mind” and manifest the “subtle mind” of clear light • Tibetan Buddhists may meditate upon mantras (repeated phrases) such as “Om mani padme hum,” or visual aids such as mandalas • Tibetan Buddhists may also practice deity yoga, in which the yogi envisions himself or herself as a deity or Buddha embodying enlightened qualities

39. Tibetan Buddhism • Tibetan Buddhist teachers are called lamas, and are sometimes viewed as reincarnations of bodhisattvas • The most well-known of these is Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama • The Dalai Lamas are thought to be incarnations of Avalokiteshvara, and were the political leaders of Tibet prior to 1959 • In the 1950s, the communist Chinese army invaded Tibet, overthrowing the theocratic government and imposing communism, destroying most of Tibet’s 6000 monasteries • The Dalai Lama and others fled Tibet, and escaped to Dharamsala, India, establishing a government-in-exile • Today, the Dalai Lama has abdicated his political leadership and continues to work towards peace and Tibetan autonomy

40. Tibetan Book of the Dead • One of the better-known texts in the Tibetan tradition is the Bardo Thodol, commonly called the “Tibetan Book of the Dead” • The Bardo Thodol is used in Tibetan Buddhist funeral rituals, and is designed to guide the deceased through the intermediary period between death and rebirth, called the bardo, which is vividly described in the text • According to the text, the deceased experiences three bardos prior to rebirth, which take on forms determined by karma: • The bardo of the moment of death: the deceased may experience the “clear light of reality” or an approximation • The bardo of the experiencing of reality: the deceased experiences various Buddha-forms or other approximations • The bardo of rebirth: various hallucinations appear to the deceased, sometimes sexual in nature, which guide the deceased to a new birth • Other bardos include the bardo of normal existence, the bardo of dreams, and the bardo of meditation

41. Shambhala Buddhism • Chögyam Trungpa (1939-1987) was a Tibetan Buddhist lama who escaped Tibet following the Chinese invasion • He eventually made his way to the West, developing a variation of Vajrayana meditation called Shambhala Training • Shambhala is the name of a mythical “enlightened society,” also called “Shangri-La” • Trungpa’s teachings introduced Buddhist meditation to Westerners (Buddhists and non-Buddhists alike) • Trungpa was a controversial figure – he drank heavily, smoked, and slept with several of his students • Some of Trungpa’s better-known students include Allen Ginsberg, David Bowie, and Joni Mitchell (whose song “Refuge of the Roads” is about Trungpa)

42. Shambhala Buddhism • Trungpa’s teachings eventually came to be known as Shambhala Buddhism, beginning around 2000 • In 1986, Trungpa moved his headquarters from Colorado to Halifax • Trungpa was succeeded by his son, Sakyong Mipham, after his death • Shambhala Buddhism has several thousand practitioners today, mostly non-Tibetans • Shambhala Buddhism is an example of the adaptation of traditional Buddhism to Western life

43. Buddhism Today • Recent centuries have brought rapid social change in East Asia, and Buddhists have had to adapt ancient practices to contemporary life • Buddhist life has been severely disrupted by militantly atheistic governments in countries such as China and Cambodia • In some areas such as Sri Lanka, Buddhist nationalists have been involved in the persecution of religious minorities • Women have struggled for equal rights within Buddhism • Many Buddhists have been involved in struggles against authoritarian regimes, including Aung San Suu Kyi, who won the Nobel Peace Prize for her non-violent resistance to the military government of Myanmar

44. For Next Week • Read Chapter 6: “Daoism and Confucianism”