法律英语的奥秘与法律英语学习

1. 法律英语的奥秘与法律英语学习

2. 1.法律英语的奥秘 • 1.1法律英语的词汇构成繁杂另类，其中蕴含的概念体系层层相扣、密切相关 • 1.2法律英语典型句型的运用 • 1.3法律英语语篇组织模式的专业性强

3. Lexical Features of Legal Language Outline • 0. Introduction • 1. Frequent use of common words with uncommon meanings • 2. Frequent use of Old and Middle English words once common, now rare • 3. Frequent use of Latin words and phrases • 4. Use of French words not in the general vocabulary • 5. Use of terms of art • 6. Use of argot • 7. Frequent use of formal words • 8. Use of doublets and triplets and synonyms • 9. Use of absolutes • 10. Deliberate use of words and expressions with flexible meanings • 11. Summary

4. 1. Use of common words with uncommon meaning Words that mean one thing to non-lawyers may mean something completely different to lawyers. • WORDS LEGAL MEANING • action law suit • alien转让transfer • avoid废止cancel • consideration补偿/对价/约因benefit to promisor or detriment to promisee • counterpart副本duplicate of a document • covenant契约 sealed contract • demise遗赠/出租to lease • demur抗辩 /异议 to file a demurrer • executed签名使契据生效 signed and delivered • hand签字signature • instrument文件legal document • letters许可证document authorizing one to act • master employer

5. WORDS LEGAL MEANING • motion动议/提案formal request for action by a court • party person contracting or litigating • plead辩护/抗辩file pleadings • Prayer诉讼请求request of a complainant • presents本文件this legal document • provided限制性条款/附带条件word of introduction to a proviso • purchase置得/购置to acquire realty by means other than descent • said mentioned before • save except • serve送达deliver legal papers • specialty盖印合同sealed contract • tenement保有物/住宅(一个人拥有的租借给他人的财产) estate in land

6. 2. Frequent use of Old and Middle English words once common, now rare • The general English of today leans heavily on Old and Middle English. But the language of the law retains numerous Old and Middle English words and meanings which have long since passed out of general usage. • Example 2 • Provided further that this Policy shall be subject to the Conditions herein contained and to any Memoranda endorsed hereon and such Conditions and Memoranda are to be taken as part of the Policy and the observance and performance by the Insured of the times and terms therein contained so far as they relate to anything to be done by the Insured are of the essence of this contract and shall be conditions precedent to any liability on the part of the Insured under this Policy.

7. aforesaid • forthwith立刻 • here words: hereafter, hereby, herein, hereinafter, hereinbefore, hereof, hereto, heretofore, hereunder, herewith • let (as in the phrase “without let or hindrance”无阻碍地,自由地,不受干涉地,通行无阻地,为所欲为地) • said (used as an adjective) • Such上述的

8. thence从那时起, thenceforth从那时起/其后 • there words: thereabout, thereafter, thereat, thereby, therefor, therefore, therein, thereon, thereto, theretofore, thereupon, therewith • where words: whereas (meaning "given the fact that"), whereat, whereby • witness (used in the sense of testimony by signature, oath, etc. as “In witness whereof, I have set my hand, ...” 签字盖章,特此为证 • witnesseth鉴于(meaning to provide formal evidence of something, the Old English present indicative, third person singular verb form.)

9. 3. Frequent use of Latin words and phrases • Many of the English words are taken directly from Latin or indirectly through French. Some of the Latin found in the standard law dictionaries have become an accepted part of the English language. For example: • affidavit书面证词/宣誓书 • alias别名, 化名 • Alibi不在犯罪现场的证明/不在犯罪现场一种辩护形式 • bona fide善意/真诚的 • proviso • quorum法定人数 • habeas corpus人身保护令 • prima facie • versus

10. But a large part of law Latin is not in active use: • ex parte片面的 • ex post facto有追溯效力的[地](an ex post facto law有追溯效力的法律) • guardian ad litem专为某一诉讼指定 • in flagrante delicto在作案现场 • in locum parentis代替父母 • inter alia和其他的事物(=among other things) • inter partes(made between two parties; between/among parties ) • per stirpes (按家系继承，也指一种从被继承人那里接受遗产的方式 =by roots/ by (right of) representation; The term is commonly used in wills and trusts to describe the distribution when a beneficiary dies before the person whose estate is being divided. Example: "I leave $100,000 to my daughter, Eleanor, and if she shall predecease me, to her children, per stirpes." ) • res ipsa loquitur(英美侵权法中的)事实自证 • in pari materia (=Of like kind; relating to /upon/on the same matter/subject) 同一事情 • in rem(=against a thing)[律]对物(指判决的对象是物或财产)诉讼地(的)

11. 4. Use of French words not in the general vocabulary • counsel • count • court • covenant • crime • damage • debt • declaration • defendant • Demand v.传讯出庭/ n. 正式请求/合法要求 • descent继承 • devise遗赠 • easement在他人土地上的通行权(或类似的权力) • evidence • execution • felony • goals (jails) • grant财产让渡通 • guarantee担保物/抵押品 • guardian • heir • indictment • infant未成年人 • judges • judgment • jurors • justice • A vast section of the language of the law stems from French sources. The following is a list of some French words basic to the law vocabulary (even apart from the land law): • action • agreement • appeal • arrest • arson • assault • attorneys • battery • bill • claim • Condition • constables • contract

12. pledge质押(a loan that required a pledge of property) • police • possession • prisons • property • purchase • Reprieve缓刑(令)/缓期执行 • robbery • sentence • servant • slander • suit • Tort民事侵权行为 • treason • Trespass侵害(用明显或隐蔽的武力或暴力对人、财产或他人的权利实施非法伤害，尤指错误地侵入另一个人的土地) • verdict • larceny • lien留置权 • marriage • misdemeanour • money • note • obligation • pardon • parties • partner • payment • plaintiff • pleadings诉状

13. alien (in the sense of "to transfer") • chose in action无形动产(可依法获得但尚未实际占有)/权利财产/经诉讼取得但尚未实际占有的动产 • demurrer抗辩(一种表示反对的方法即：同意对方论据中的事实，但是否定对方基于这些事实的辩护) • estoppel禁止翻供/禁止反言(Promissory Estoppel不得自食其言) • estoppel in pais行为禁反言 • esquire先生 • fee simpleand fee tail (retaining the French word order)继承者有绝对处理权处理地产///限制继承者的地产/祖传土地 • fee absolute无条件继承权 • qualified fee有条件继承 • There is still a substantial group of Old French and Anglo-Norman words which have not been taken into the general vocabulary. This is law French. E.g.:

14. attorney general (retaining the French word order)检查总长/首席检察官/司法部长 • laches[用作单](行使法律权利或履行法律义务的)疏忽,怠慢 • metes and bounds(房地产的)四至/界线/边界 • oyez肃静(连续叫三次以示法庭的开庭) • Quash=annul取消/废止(尤指通过司法行为) • roll (as in ‘judgment roll’)法院案卷/存卷/记录/目录 (存卷法官(Master of Roll)) • save (in the sense of 'except') • specialty (in the sense of 'sealed contract) • style (as in 'name and style')名称 • voire dire一切照实陈述(见证人或陪审员在接受审核时的誓语)

15. 5. Use of terms of art • A term of art is a technical word with a specific meaning and irreplaceable. Not everything that has the sound of the law is a term of art. A term of art must be specific. There are numerous words which operate as a kind of shorthand among lawyers. Here are some law terms of art: • agency • alias summons另外的传票 • alibi • appeal

16. bail • common counts • defendant • demurrer • dry trust =被动信托 The term "dry trust" refers to a trust wherein the trustee has no actual responsibilities and no active duties to perform. • fee simple • fee tail • fictitious defendant • guarantee • habeas corpus • guarantor • judicial notice司法认知 • laches • landlord/lessor • tenant/lessee

17. letters patent • master and servant • month-to-month tenancy • negotiable instrument票据 • plaintiff • principal and surety主事人和担保人 • Surrender归还（例如地产权）,尤指在期限未满之前放弃（租赁） • tort • voir dire

18. Terms of art are useful legal words that, over time, have come to refer to recognizable legal concepts. They may be Latin terms, e.g. res ipsa loquitur事实自证 (meaning "thing speaks for itself") or they may be ordinary English words with a specialized meaning, e.g. "proximate cause"近因(保险用语)/remote cause远因, "negligence", and "foreseeability". Terms of art are useful simply because they provide a "short" way to refer to a "long" concept.

19. 6. Use of argot • Argot (=cant or jargon) is specialized vocabulary that is common within a group, whether or not deliberately designed to exclude the non-member of the group. • The language of the law, sometimes even a particular word, has a dual aspect. Lawyers use language that is intended to speak to lawyers and laymen, as in contracts, jury instructions, notices, and even laws. Lawyers also use language that is intended to speak primarily to each other, as in pleadings, opinions, argument and in the day-to-day negotiation and discussion that is the lawyer's life. In this aspect, a portion of the language of the law is ARGOT, a 'professional language'. E.g.:

20. case • cause of action • damages • due care • inferior court • issue of fact关于事实的争论点 • issue of law关于引用法律的争论点 • pierce the corporate veil • purported传说的；假设的 • pursuant to stipulation • record • reversed and remanded发回重审 • superior court • well settled • without prejudice • alleged有嫌疑的 • alter ego另一个我/ 个性中的另一面；知己 • argumentative • at issue • bail exonerated开脱/免除 • Blackacre 是一个虚构的概念，代表财产权的一种标的物：某一块土地或某一栋房屋 • breaking and entering • came on for hearing • four corners of the instrument:the term for studying an entire document to understand its meaning, without reference to anything outside of the document ("extrinsic evidence"), such as the circumstances surrounding its writing or the history of the party signing it. Unless examination cannot resolve an ambiguity in the document's language, it should be construed based upon what lies within its "four corners."

21. 7. Frequent use of formal words • The style of using formal words in legal language has been described as solemn, mystical, and dignified, e.g. the polite expression of former days, "approach the bench" instead of "come here", euphemisms like "the deceased" and "the decedent" and undomesticated Latin and French "arrested in flagrante delicto" instead of "caught in the act", etc. More examples:

22. adjudge • came on for hearing • decree • prior to (instead of "before") • sat down for hearing • strangers to the blood • subsequent (instead of "after") • toll the statute: To remove the effect of (the court did not toll the statute of repose after the statutory period had expired) • whereas (meaning "given the fact that") • without prejudice

23. 8. Deliberate use of words and expressions with flexible meanings • It is generally agreed that precision is one of the major characteristics of the language of the law. Legal writers are advised to avoid any words or expressions which are likely to cause ambiguity or vagueness. That is why lawyers customarily choose their words more carefully than non-lawyers. But sometimes they deliberately choose words with flexible meanings. Here is a fair sample of law words and phrases which are often used because they are flexible or despite their flexibility:

24. about • abuse of discretion • adequate (as adequate cause/compensation/consideration/remedy, etc.) • and/or • apparently • approximately • as soon as possible • available • average • care • clean and neat condition • clear and convincing

25. intention • intoxicated • large • lately • malice • mere • more or less • near • net profit • obvious • possible • promptly • proper • reasonable (as reasonable care/man/speed/time, etc.) • regular • satisfaction • comparable • convenient • desire • doubtless • due (as due care/process) • excessive • existing • expenses • extraordinary (as extraordinary service) • extreme cruelty • fair division • few • Fixture附属物 • gross (as gross profit) • habitual • improper • in regard to • inadequate

26. undue (as undue influence/interference/restraint, etc.) • unreasonable • unsafe • unsound • unusual • usual • valuable • voluntary • worthless • satisfy • serious (as serious illness/misconduct, crime, circumstances, etc.) • similar • sound mind • sufficient • suitable • temporarily • things • transaction • try • under the influence of • understand

27. In translating words with flexible meanings, translators do not have to worry about the vagueness that might arise. What they can do is to keep faithful to the original and leave the problem of "vagueness" for the "judges", because "Judges make law".

28. 9. Use of doublets and triplets and synonyms • 在各种法律条文中,我们可以常见到以下的类似用法: • rights and interests权益,terms and conditions条款,complete and final understanding全部和最终的理解,customs fees and duties关税,losses and damages损坏,null and void无效,sign and issue签发,这些词表示固定的意义,使用和翻译时不能随意拆开。 • More examples of doublets and triplets：

29. moneys, obligations and liabilities • make payment, performance • in the funds and currency • withholding, deduction扣除 • unless and until = until • constitution or partners • amount due or owing • incurred or arising out or in connection therewith • incurred, created, assumed • agree and declare • credit or facilities • deed or covenant • guarantee, indemnity, assurance, pledge • bill, note

30. mortgage, charge • right, power or remedy • valid or enforceable • invalid or unenforceable • defect, or insufficiency or want • irregular or improper • taking or raising any point • indulgence or concession • terms or conditions • by this act and deed • all and singular • after or change

31. cease and desist • confessed and acknowledged • covenants and agrees • do and perform • each and every • fixtures or fittings • free and complete • full and complete • good and effectual • good and sufficient • goods and chattels • had and received • in connection with • last will and testament

32. any matter, fact or thing • nominate, constitute and appoint • loans or advances made or to be made • compromise, arrangement or settlement • by virtue of or in connection with • paid, discharged and satisfied • release, discharge or settlement • provisions or enactment • in full force and effect • combine or consolidate all or any of sb's accounts of any nature or description whatsoever • coming into your possession or control • under or pursuant to • in your sole and absolute discretion

33. valid or effective • be cumulative and in addition • to do or cause to be done • agrees and consents • be declared or adjudged • illegal, invalid or unenforceable • illegality, invalidity or unenforceability • remain in full force, validity and effect • good and valid • judgment, award and/ or order • signed, sealed and delivered

34. made and entered into • means and includes • totally null and void • order and direct • perform and discharge • repair and make good • save and except • settle and compromise • suffer or permit • terms and conditions • tried and tested

35. true and correct • unless and until • well and sufficiently • any matter, fact or things • convey, transfer and set over • give, devise and bequeath • rest, residue and remainder

36. 重言词/同义词的使用﹕ • absolutely unique • ascend up • blend together • condense down • continue on • cooperate together • forward planning • important essentials • mutually agree • past history • totally unanimous

37. 10. Use of absolutes • In addition of the use of terms of art, there is a recurrent choice of absolutes like the following: • all • impossible • irrevocable • last clear chance • never • none • outright • perpetuity • unavoidable • unbroken • uniform • wherever • whoever

38. There are phrases designed to keep the restricted restricted: • and no more • and no other purpose • shall not constitute a waiver • shall not be deemed a consent • There are phrases intended to keep the broad broad: • including but not limit to ... • ... or other similar or dissimilar causes ... • shall not be deemed to limit • without prejudice • nothing contained herein shall ...

39. 11. Conclusion • Those are the major lexical characteristics of the language of the law. Most lawyers use traditional law language because they believe that "ordinary English is beneath a professional's dignity; as it should be -- when ordinary English is bad English or when law language says it better." In fact, "ordinary English is not always bad English, and law language does not always say it better, or more precisely." Simple language can achieve the correct style and tone by being straightforward, clear, precise and complete (using no more words than are necessary). Although some people may insist that plain language is not appropriate for legal writing, there has been a movement among lawyers towards using plain English. In order to achieve the proper tone, the following factors must be taken into account:

40. (1) your potential readers: clients, judges or general public; • (2) the reader's needs and knowledge of the subject matter; • (3) what you need to say in the circumstances. • One of the essentials for producing -- writing or translating -- clear, concise, precise, and jargon-free legal documents is the choice of words. In "The Elements of Legal Writing", M.Faulk and I.Mebler (1994) put forward the following principles: • (1) Use only essential words from traditional legal phrases. • (2) Avoid lawyerisms. • (3) Use Latin and French terms only for firmly entrenched legal concepts.

41. 法律英语词汇、法律体系、法律文化 以刑法与刑诉为例 1. Criminal Law and Related Concepts • 犯罪构成四要素： • Actus Reus犯罪行为 • Mens Rea主观过错/犯罪意图 • Concurrence两者并存 • Causation 因果关系 刑罚的目的 • Retribution 报应目的 • Deterrence 威慑目的 • Rehabilitation 改造目的 • Incapacitation 剥夺犯罪能力的目的

42. crime 与offence 是同义词，但还有一定差别。尚未落定的罪名往往叫offence; 已经落定的罪通常才叫crime。因此，offender 可译成“违犯者”；而criminal译成“罪犯”更为贴切。有人违犯交通法规或乱穿马路，他可以是一个“offender”，但未必是一个“criminal”。 • Common Law（旧时）: Three degrees of crime: treason—叛国罪; felony—重刑罪/重罪; misdemeanour—非重刑罪/轻罪; Another type of classification: misfeasance—失当行为; delinquency—失职行为; violation—犯规/违反行为; misdemeanour—非重刑罪/轻罪; felony—重刑罪

43. extortion racketeering bribery buggery sodomy defamation libel slandering defalcation • Misdemeanour includes: • adultery/fornication • affray滋扰罪（聚众斗殴） • nuisance滋扰罪/妨害罪（作公众讨厌的事） • battery（e.g. wife-battery） • intimidation • blackmail

44. indecent exposure gross indecency hooliganism incest loitering money laundry perjury personation假冒身分 procurement拉皮条 sex-harassment theft trespassing… embezzlement encroachment indecent exposure粗狂行为罪 gross indecency严重猥亵罪 false accounting fraud gambling

45. Distinction： • 1) libel, slandering 都是诽谤行为, 但前者主要指书面诽谤，后者则为口头诽谤，其统称为defamation。 • 2) affray, nuisance同为滋扰罪，前者主要指聚众打架斗殴之类的滋扰；后者则尤指作些公众普遍讨厌的事情，如在夜间大声喧哗扰众之类的行为。

46. 3) defalcation, embezzlement, encroachment 三者中文译文都是侵吞、侵占，但其内涵有所不同：最前者所“侵吞、侵占”一定是公家或其所托管的金钱，因此一般译成“挪用公款罪”， 后者主要指侵吞他人的不动产，如土地；而中间一词可以侵吞任何钱/物，如美国一位在精子银行做事的女职员未经委托人同意，私自动用某名人精子为己授精生子，其所犯的控罪是embezzlement。 • 4) blackmail, extortion, racketeering 这一组的中文译文均为敲诈勒索，但前者一般指不使用暴力、通过威胁，如泄露对对方有害的资料而索取钱财；中间一词指通过暴力、地位、权利等各种手段索取金钱；后者则类似“fraud”, 以欺骗或带威胁手段勒索钱财。

47. arson conspiracy genocide hijacking infanticide manslaughter mutiny murder drug / narcotic(s) trafficking raping gang-raping轮奸罪 riot robbery sex assault smuggling torture treason…… Felony includes

48. 在西方，杀人罪名称五花八门: murder（谋杀）, manslaughter（误杀）, homicide（杀人）, genocide（种族灭绝罪）, infanticide（杀婴罪）……。所有有人被杀案件均可称之为“homicide”（例外：suicide）

49. Dangerous drugs include: • Marihuana, morphine, cocaine, • amphetamine（fling）; opium; heroin • Cannabis; ecstacy; ketamine; Acid; • LSD= Acid迷幻药; acid trip • Distinction: • drug trafficking & drug smuggling • 对犯有各种罪行的犯罪分子，各地是如何将他们绳之以法的呢？对已经定罪的（the convicted）究竟有哪些处罚呢？ 

50. abortion 解作流产时并非法律词汇，但作为法律词汇时，其意为堕胎。这在许多实行普通法的国家是一项可以坐牢的罪行。同样，adultery/fornication (通奸罪)，在许多神权国家和地区,也是一种罪行，例如在台湾，通奸仍然是一桩可被刑事检控的罪名。而在其他一些国家，adultery 比起“sex assault”、“raping”已经不算为罪，e.g. • Bryant has said he committed adultery by having consensual sex with his accuser in his hotel room at the Lodge and Spa a Cordillera in Edwards, Colo. He faces four years to life imprisonment if convicted.（《洛杉矶时报》，2003：A18） • Bryant被指控犯了性攻击（sex assault）或强奸（raping）罪。倘若Bryant 被裁定犯了通奸罪，他可以无罪开释；但若“性攻击”或强奸罪名成立，他至少得坐监四年，甚至有可能被终身监禁。