Chapter 1 – “They Say”

Writing an argument Essay Chapter 1 – “They Say” Starting with What Others Are Saying

Entering the Conversation • A writer needs to indicate clearly not only what his or her thesis is, but also what larger conversation that thesis is responding to. • To keep an audience engaged, a writer needs to explain what he or she is responding to—either before offering that response or, at least, very early in the discussion. • Waiting more than one or two paragraphs will reverse the natural order in which the reader thinks • Remember you are entering a conversation • Therefore, you need to start with “what others are saying,” and then introduce your own ideas as a response.

What “They Say” • Don’t summarize everything, but don’t jump right into your own argument • You will eventually state your own position and the one it’s responding to together as a unit. • Just give your readers a quick preview of what is motivating your argument; don’t drown them in details right away • When you present your argument as part of some larger conversation, you will indicate something about the arguments of others that you are supporting, opposing, amending, complicating, or qualifying. • It lets others do some of the work of framing and clarifying the issue you’re writing about

Where is there a summary of what others are saying? Does he agree? Most people who bother with the matter at all would admit that the English language is in a bad way, but it is generally assumed that we cannot by conscious action do anything about it. Our civilization is decadent and our language—so the argument runs—must inevitably share in the general collapse… [But] the process is reversible. Modern English… is full of bad habits… which can be avoided if one is willing to take the necessary trouble George Orwell, “Politics and the English Language”

Advanced “they Say” • Other ways of opening with someone else’s views, include: • An illustrative quotation • A revealing fact or statistic • A relevant anecdote • If you use these, they must illustrate the view you’re addressing or lead to that view directly, with a minimum of steps

Where is there a summary of what others are saying? Does She agree? “I’m a reader!” Announced the yellow button. “How about you?” I looked at its bearer, a strapping young guy stalking my town’s Festival of Books. “I’ll bet you’re a reader,” he volunteered, as though we were two geniuses well met. “No,” I replied. “Absolutely not,” I wanted to yell, and fling my Barnes and Noble bag at his feet. Instead, I mumbled something apologetic and melted into the crowd. There’s a new piety in the air: the self congratulation of book lovers Christina Nehring, “Books Make You a Boring Person”

Describe what “They Say” • Boston Celtics v. Los Angeles Lakers • Hot Dogs v. Hamburgers • Meat Eaters v. Vegetarians • Apples v. Oranges • The Easter Bunny v. Santa Claus

Templates for Introducing Standard Views • Americans have always believed that __________. • Conventional wisdom has it that __________. • Common sense seems to dictate that __________. • The standard way of thinking about topic X has it that __________. • It is often said that __________. • My whole life I have heard it said that __________. • You would think that __________. • Many people assume that __________.

Describe a “standard view” • Boston Celtics v. Los Angeles Lakers • Hot Dogs v. Hamburgers • Meat Eaters v. Vegetarians • Apples v. Oranges • The Easter Bunny v. Santa Claus

Templates for Making What They Say Something You Say • I’ve always believed that __________. • When I was a child, I used to think that __________. • Although I should know better by now, I cannot help thinking that __________. • At the same time that I believe __________, I also believe __________.

Describe what they (and you) Say • Boston Celtics v. Los Angeles Lakers • Hot Dogs v. Hamburgers • Meat Eaters v. Vegetarians • Apples v. Oranges • The Easter Bunny v. Santa Claus

Templates for Introducing Something Implied or Assumed • Although none of them have ever said so directly, group X have often given me the impression that __________. • One implication of X’s treatment of __________ is that __________. • X apparently assumes that __________. • While they rarely admit as much, __________ often take for granted __________.

Describe an assumed belief • Boston Celtics v. Los Angeles Lakers • Hot Dogs v. Hamburgers • Meat Eaters v. Vegetarians • Apples v. Oranges • The Easter Bunny v. Santa Claus

Templates for Introducing an Ongoing Debate • In discussions of X, one controversial issue has been __________. On the one hand __________ argues __________. On the other hand, __________ contends __________. Others even maintain __________. My own view is __________. • When it comes to the topic of __________, most of us will readily agree that __________. Where this agreement usually ends, however, is on the question of __________. Whereas some are convinced that __________, others maintain that __________.

Describe an ongoing debate • Boston Celtics v. Los Angeles Lakers • Hot Dogs v. Hamburgers • Meat Eaters v. Vegetarians • Apples v. Oranges • The Easter Bunny v. Santa Claus

Writing an argument Essay Chapter 2 – “Her Point is” The Art of Summarizing

Summarizing • Because writers who make strong claims need to make their claims in response to those of other people, it is important to know how to summarize effectively what those other people say • “Summarizing” refers to any information from others that you present in your own words including that which you paraphrase • A good summary requires balancing what the original author is saying with the writer’s own focus • It must be true to what the original author says while also emphasizing those aspects of what the author says that interests you, the writer • You must face outward (toward the writer) and inward (toward yourself) • You must be able to suspend your own beliefs for a time and put yourself in the shoes of someone else

Examples of Summarizing David Zinczenko’s article “Don’t Blame the Eater,” is nothing more than an angry rant in which he accuses the fast-food companies of an evil conspiracy to make people fat. I disagree because these companies have to make money… • Mischaracterizes the tone as ‘angry’ • Abandons the summary after only one sentence and rushes on to her own response • Even though a one sentence summary is sometimes okay Several studies (Crackle, 1992; Pop, 2001; Snap, 1987) suggest that these policies are harmless; moreover, other studies (Dick, 2002; Harry, 2003; Tom, 1987) argue that they even have benefits.

Summaries with a “spin” • A good summary has a focus or spin that allows the summary to fit with your own agenda while still being true to the text you are summarizing. • Suppose you want to argue that it is parents, not fast-food companies, who are to blame for children’s obesity. To set up this argument, you will probably want to compose a summary that highlights what Zinczenko says about the fast-food industry and parents.

Where/How does the writer put a “spin” on his summary? In his article “Don’t Blame the Eater,” David Zinczenko blames the fast-food industry for fueling today’s so-called obesity epidemic, not only by failing to provide adequate warning labels on its high-calorie foods but also by filling the nutritional void in children’s lives left by their overtaxed working parents. With many parents working long hours and unable to supervise what their children eat, Zinczenko claims, children today are easily victimized by the low-cost, calorie-laden foods that the fast-food chains are all too eager to supply. When he was a young boy, for instance, and his single mother was away at work, he ate at Taco Bell, McDonald’s, and other chains on a regular basis, and ended up overweight. Zinczenko’s hope is that with the new spate of lawsuits against the food industry, other children with working parents will have healthier choices available to them, and that they will not, like him, become obese. In my view, however, it is the parents, and not the food chains, who are responsible for their children’s obesity. While it is true that many of today’s parents work long hours, there are still several things that parents can do to guarantee that their children eat healthy foods…

Avoid List summaries • Often writers who summarize without regard to their own interests fall prey to what might be called “list summaries,” summaries that simply inventory the original author’s various points but fail to focus those points around any larder overall claim. The author says many things about his subject. First he says… Then he makes the point that… In addition he says… And then he writes… Also he shows that… And then he says…

Using Signal Verbs • Instead of writing “X said,” try: • X totally misrepresented • X attacked • X loved • Instead of “says” or “discusses,” try: • Urges • Emphasizes • Complains • Protests • Challenges • Chastises • Indicts • The Declaration of Independence doesn’t “talk about” the treatment of the colonies by the British; it “protests against” it

Using Signal Verbs Templates for introducing summaries or quotations: • She advocates a radical revision of the juvenile justice system. • They celebrate the fact that _____________________________. • Even adults often make poor dietary choices, he admits.

Use vivid and precise signal verbs when introducing a summary Verbs for Making a Claim Verbs for Expressing Agreement Acknowledge Admire Agree Celebrate the fact that Corroborate Do not deny Endorse Extol Praise Reaffirm Support Verify • Argue • Assert • Believe • Claim • Emphasize • Insist • Observe • Remind us • Report • Suggest

Use vivid and precise signal verbs when introducing a summary Verbs for Questioning or Disagreeing Verbs for Making Recommendations Advocate Call for Demand Encourage Exhort Implore Plead Recommend Urge Warn • Complain • Complicate • Contend • Contradict • Deny • Deplore the tendency to • Qualify • Question • Refute • Reject • Renounce • Repudiate

Chapter 4 – “Yes/No/Okay, But” Three Ways to Respond

Offering your Argument • Good arguments are based not on knowledge that only a special class of experts has access to, but on everyday habits of mind that can be isolated, identified, and used by almost anyone. • There are three most common ways to respond to others’ ideas • Agreeing • Disagreeing • A combination of both • If you wait too long, readers will get frustrated because they don’t know if you are for or against the arguments you have presented

Offering your Argument • Don’t begin your response by launching into a mass of details, instead it may help to use a direct, no nonsense formula like: • I agree… . • I disagree… . • I agree that _____________, but I cannot agree that ____________ . • This even works when analyzing or interpreting literature: • Although some readers might think that this poem is about ______________, it is in fact about _______________.

Disagree—And explain Why • Disagreeing can be an easy way to generate an essay: find something you can disagree with in what has been said or might be said about your topic, summarize it, and argue with it. • There are some challenges: • You have to offer persuasive reasons why you disagree • Can’t just add “not” to what someone else has said • You have to give reasons to support what you say • Because another’s argument fails to take relevant factors into account • Because it is based on faulty or incomplete evidence • Because it uses flawed logic, is contradictory, or overlooks the real issue • You need to demonstrate that you have something to contribute

Templates for disagreeing with reasons • X is mistaken because she overlooks recent fossil discoveries in the South. • X’s claim that _________________ rests upon the questionable assumption that __________________________. • I disagree with X’s view that ___________________ because, as recent research has shown, ______________________. • X contradicts herself/can’t have it both ways. On the one hand, she argues ____________________. On the other hand, she also says _____________________. • By focusing on ______________________, X overlooks the deeper problem of _________________________.

Some special moves for disagreeing • The “duh” move: • According to a recent report by some researchers at Stanford University, high school students with college aspirations “often lack crucial information on applying to college and on succeeding academically once they get there.” We;;, duh… It shouldn’t take a Stanford research team to tell us that when it comes to “succeeding academically,” many students don’t have a clue. • It is true that ________________, but we already knew that. • The “twist it” move: • X argues for stricter gun control legislation, saying that the crime rate is on the rise and that we need to restrict the circulation of guns. I agree that the crime rate is on the rise, but that’s precisely why I oppose stricter gun control legislation. We need to own guns to protect ourselves against criminals • Agree with the evidence but use logic to support your own position

Agree—But with a difference • You need to do more than simply echoing the views you agree with • You need to bring something new to the discussion • You may point out some unnoticed evidence or line of reasoning that supports X’s claims that X herself hadn’t mentioned • You may give personal experience or observations that X’s position helps readers understand • You may may give an explanation of X’s more complicated ideas using more accessible language

Templates for Agreeing • I agree that diversity in the student body is educationally valuable because my experience at Central University confirms it. • X is surely right about _____________ because, as she may not be aware, recent studies have shown that _________________. • X’s theory of _____________ is extremely useful because it sheds light on the difficult problem of _______________. • Those unfamiliar with this school of thought may be interested to know that it basically boils down to ____________________. • I agree that ___________, a point that needs emphasizing since too many people still believe _______________________. • If group X is right that ____________, as I think they are, then we need to reassess the popular assumption that __________.

Agree and disagree simultaneously • This is the best way of responding because it gets beyond the “is too” and “is not” exchanges of young children • You can subtly tip the sentence toward agreement or disagreement depending on the structure. • Although I agree with X up to a point, I cannot accept his overriding assumption that religion is no longer a major force today. • Yes, but… • Although I disagree with much that X says, I fully endorse his final conclusion that _______________. • No, but…

Templates for Agreeing and disagreeing simultaneously • Although I agree with X up to a point, I cannot accept his overriding assumption that religion is no longer a major force today. • Although I disagree with much that X says, I fully endorse his final conclusion that _______________. • Though I concede that _________________, I still insist that ___________________. • X is right that _____________, but she seems on more dubious ground when she claims that _____________________. • While X is probably wrong when she claims that _______________, she is right that _____________________. • Whereas X provides ample evidence that ______________, Y and Z’s research on _______________ and _______________ convinces me that ___________________ instead.

The “I’m of two minds” move • I’m of two minds about X’s claim that __________________. On the one hand, I agree that ______________. ON the other hand, I’m not sure if _________________. • My feelings on the issue are mixed. I do support X’s position that ______________, but I find Y’s argument about _______________ and Z’s research on __________________ to be equally persuasive. These templates should be dangerous because they leave your reader unsure of exactly where your opinion lies.

Chapter 7 – “So What? Who Cares?” Saying Why It Matters

Who Cares? So What? • Regardless of how interesting a topic may be to you as a writer, readers always need to know what is at stake in a text and why they should care • Too often, these questions are let unanswered—mainly because writers and speakers assume that audiences will know the answers already or will figure them out on their own. • Speakers don’t address the crucial question of why their arguments matter.

Who Cares? So What? • These questions get at the same thing: • The relevance or importance of what you are saying • But they get at this significance in different ways • “Who cares” asks you to identify a person or group who cares about your claims • “So what” asks about the real-world applications and consequences of those claims—what difference it would make if they were accepted

Who Cares? Scientists used to think body fat and the cells it was made of were pretty much inert, just an oily storage compartment. But within the past decade research has shown that fat cells act like chemical factories and that body fat is potent stuff: a highly active tissue that secretes hormones and other substances with profound and sometimes harmful effects… In recent years, biologists have begun calling fat an “endocrine organ,” comparing it to glands like the thyroid and pituitary, which also release hormones straight into the bloodstream. Denise Grady, “The Secret Life of a Potent Cell”

Templates for Indicating Who Cares • Parents used to think spanking was necessary. But recently experts suggest that it can be counterproductive. • This interpretation challenges the work of those critics who have long assumed that ________. • These findings challenge the work of earlier researchers, who tended to assume that _________. • Recent studies like these shed light on _________, which previous studies have not addressed. • If sports enthusiasts stopped to think about it, many of them might simply assume that the most successful athletes ___________. However, new research shows ________. • These findings challenge neoliberals common assumption that _________. • At first glance, teenagers might say _________. But on closer inspection, _________________.

So What? • The best way to answer questions about the larger consequences of your claims is to appeal to something that your audience already likely cares about.

So What? Researchers trying to decipher the biology of fat cells hope to find new ways to help people get rid of excess fat or, at least, prevent obesity from destroying their health. In an increasingly obese world, their efforts have taken on added importance. Internationally, more than a billion people are overweight. Obesity and two illnesses linked to it, heart disease and high blood pressure, are on the World Health Organization’s list of the top 10 global health risks. In the United States, 65 percent of adults weight too much, compared with about 56 percent a decade ago, and government researchers blame obesity for at least 300,000 deaths a year. Denise Grady, “The Secret Life of a Potent Cell”

Templates for Establishing Why Claims Matter • Huckleberry Finn is important because it is one of the most widely taught novels in the American school system. • Although X may seem trivial, it is in fact crucial in terms of today’s concern over __________. • Ultimately, what is at stake here is ___________. • These findings have important implications for the broader domain of ____________. • If we are right about __________, then major consequences follow for ______________. • These conclusions/This discovery will have significant applications in _________ as well as in ___________.

Combination of Who Cares and So What • Although X may seem of concern to only a small group of ___________, it should in fact concern anyone who cares about _________.

Chapter 1 – “They Say”