CHAPTER 3

1. CHAPTER 3 CHANGING EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOR THROUGH CONSEQUENCES

2. Learning • A fairly permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience • Change in behavior must be more than temporary • Learning occurs when we observe a fairly permanent change in behavior

3. Approaches to Learning • Classical conditioning • Observational learning • Instrumental, or Operant, Conditioning

4. Classical Conditioning • Early approach to learning theory by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian Physiologist • Pavlov’s test: • Conditioned a dog to salivate when a bell is rung presenting food; eventually the dog responded to the bell alone without the presentation of food

5. Classical Conditioning (cont.) • Unconditioned stimulus: presentation of food to dog • Conditioned stimulus: Ringing of bell • Conditioned response: The dog salivating when bell alone was rung • Unconditioned response: The dog salivating when the food was presented to him

6. Observational Learning • Occurs when a person witnesses the behavior of another and vicariously experiences the consequences of the other person’s actions • Appropriate for simple tasks • Numerous trials and rehearsals unnecessary • No apparent reward is administered in observation

7. Observational Learning (cont.) • Largely self-regulated • Examples of this form: training films, training manuals, lectures, role playing • Many believe this form is most successful when external rewards are provided

8. Instrumental, or Operant, Conditioning • B.F. Skinner developed this approach • Based on premise that human behavior in organizations is “instrumental” • People act on their surroundings as well as deliberately move into and out of different situations

9. Instrumental, or Operant, Conditioning (cont.) • Reinforcement is used in conjunction with a response: • Positive reinforcement: any event used to increase frequency of desired response • Negative reinforcement: any event that, when removed, increases frequency of a response

10. Law of Effect • Behavior that is followed by a positive response is more likely to recur while behavior that is followed by an undesirable response is less likely to recur

11. Behavior Modification(OB Mod) • The application of operant conditioning in organizational settings is known as OB Mod • Involves • Acquiring complex behaviors: shaping • Maintaining desired behaviors

12. Acquiring Complex Behaviors: Shaping • Reinforcing small approximations of the final desired behavior

13. Maintaining Desired Behaviors • Extinction: when a response ceases to occur due to the removal of reinforcement • Managers seek to increase the strength of desired responses so desired behavior will not disappear if reinforcement is removed

14. Maintaining Desired Behaviors (cont.) • Resistance to Extinction: ensuring the responses persist in the absence of reinforcement • Partial reinforcement: providing reinforcements on an intermittent basis; proven to be more successful in increasing resistance to extinction

15. Maintaining Desired Behaviors (cont.) • Continuous reinforcement: when employee behaviors are followed with reinforcement after each and every occurrence

16. Schedules of Reinforcement • Schedules of reinforcement are used when reinforcement is partial • Interval Schedule: Reinforces behavior on basis of time elapsed • Ratio Schedule: Number of times the behavior is performed

17. Schedules of Reinforcement (cont.) • Fixed Schedule: Amount of time/number of behaviors is specified in advance • Variable Schedule: Amount of time/number of behaviors vary

18. Interval Schedule • The amount of time between reinforcements is the determinant of scheduling • Fixed interval: Fixed periods of time between reinforcements; performance tends to be poor; little incentive • Variable interval: Vary the amount of time the elapses between reinforcement; time can’t be predicted in advance

19. Ratio Schedules • Number of incidences of behaviors between one reinforcement and the next is the determinant of scheduling • Fixed Ratio: involves giving reinforcement in exchange for a fixed number of responses; e.g. a piece-rate pay scheme

20. Ratio Schedules (cont.) • Variable Ratio: reinforcement after individual has produced a number of desired responses, with the precise number varying; e.g. cash bonuses, public recognition, awards for good performance • Most effective schedule is the variable ratio schedule which is most resistant to extinction

21. Rules for Applying Operant Conditioning Principles 1. Use differential rewarding • Treating all subordinates alike encourages mediocrity • Make rewards commensurate with performance to signal efforts are valued 2. Identify valued rewards for individual • If a manager hopes to influence an employee’s behavior through the use of rewards, the rewards must have value to the employee.

22. Rules for Applying Operant Conditioning Principles (cont.) 3. Instruct subordinates on how rewards are tied to performance • If employees understand how rewards and performance are tied together, they may construct behaviors to earn rewards. 4. Provide informative feedback on performance • Feedback itself is rewarding, and also so that behavior can be molded to match desired standards.

23. Does OB Mod Work? • Useful approach to improving employee performance • Recent review of 10 Organizations that experimented with OB Mod • Nine of the 10 cases have positive effect

24. Controversies Surrounding OB Mod • Studies have generally supported OB Mod program effectiveness • Opponents accuse OB Mod of being manipulative, deliberately controlling behavior of others in a “Big Brother” fashion • Unoriginal, i.e., similar to scientific management

25. Controversies Surrounding OB Mod (cont.) • Unpleasant questions arise as to whether firms should condone such programs • Ignoring the importance of internally mediated rewards; e.g. motivation from enjoyment

26. Controversies Surrounding OB Mod (cont.) • Another body of criticism comes from studies that were oriented to determine the mental processes that caused the responses to operant conditioning techniques

27. The Role of Punishment • Defined as an undesirable event that follows a behavior it intends to eliminate • Does little to alter undesirable behavior, but instead encourages the offender to seek other ways to engage in the behavior • May motivate the offender to engage in revenge tactics

28. Alternatives to Punishment • Creating work settings where undesirable behaviors are unlikely to occur • Permit extinction to set in by removing the reinforcement that may have initially fueled the person to engage in undesirable behaviors

29. Alternatives to Punishment (cont.) • Ignore events that are not costly to the organization, or that were exceptions to standard policies

30. Effective Punishment • Punishment may be appropriate: • When undesirable behavior is so serious it warrants some form of punishment • When avoidance of circumstances that lead to undesirable behaviors is impossible, or too costly • When the undesirable behavior provides its own reward, and thus resistance to extinction is high

31. Attributes of Effective Punishment • Focus on behaviors, making punishment impersonal • Act immediately • Make the punishment severe enough • Use punishment reliably, in each case of specified undesired behavior • Do not discriminate across employees, i.e., make it uniform

32. Guidelines for Administering Discipline • The question of how to deliver it depends on: • Supervisor’s personal style of leadership • Employee’s background • Size of the organization

33. Progressive Discipline • Uses penalties that are increased according to the frequency and severity of infractions • Consists of series of steps that gradually impose increasingly severe penalties • At every step the employee is aware that actions rest on company policies

34. Progressive Discipline (cont.) • Many companies pose a list of how various infractions will be treated

35. Conducting a Disciplinary Meeting • Have a private meeting with the offender • Don’t lose your cool • Be certain of your facts; back up charges • Select an appropriate punishment, severity should match offense

36. Conducting a Disciplinary Meeting (cont.) • Accomplish the following three objectives: • State what is wrong • State what you expect • State what happens if you don’t get what you expect • Keep records