Educational Research

Educational Research Chapter 6 Descriptive Research Gay, Mills, and Airasian

Topics Discussed in this Chapter • Descriptive research • Designing and conducting descriptive research • Self-report data collection methods • Questionnaires • Interviews

Descriptive Research • Purpose • Determines and describes the way things are • Compares how sub-groups view issues and topics • Importance • Frequently used in research studies • Used to influence opinion • Useful for investigating a variety of educational problems Obj. 1.1, 1.2, 1.3

Descriptive Research Uses observations and interviews Studies the topic from the researcher’s perspective Qualitative Research Uses observations and interviews Studies the topic from the participant’s perspective Differences from Qualitative Research Obj. 1.4

Method • Six steps in conducting descriptive research • Identify problem • Review literature • Select participants and instruments • Collect valid and reliable data • Analyze data • Report conclusions Obj. 2.1

Common Errors • Lack of participant response • Low response rates are common • Difficulties interpreting the findings without the data representing non-respondents’ views • Unclear/ambiguous items • Researcher needs to develop recording forms that collect the data objectively and reliably Obj. 2.2 & 2.3

Classifications of Descriptive Research • Classified by how data are collected • Self-report • Individuals respond to statements or questions about themselves • Observation • Data is collected by the researcher watching participants Obj. 3.1 & 3.2

Survey Data Collection Methods • Surveys represent the most common type of self-report measures • Questionnaires • Interviews • Advantages of conducting surveys • Less time is required • Less expenses are incurred • Larger samples can be used Obj. 4.1

Survey Data Collection Methods • Five (5) types of surveys • School surveys • Information collected by a school • Information collected about a school • Sample surveys • Use of samples representing relevant subgroups of interest Obj 3.3

Survey Data Collection Methods • Developmental surveys • Examining variables that differentiate children at different developmental stages • Cross-sectional surveys • Collecting data from several samples at one point in time • Surveying samples of elementary, middle, and secondary teachers at the same time Obj. 3.3 & 3.4

Survey Data Collection Methods • Longitudinal surveys • Collecting data at two or more times to measure change • Four types • Trend – samples from succeeding groups are studied over time • Cohort – separate samples from a single group are studied over time • Panel – a single sample from a group is studied over time • Follow-up – a sample is studied after the formal study is complete Obj. 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, & 3.8

Conducting Survey Research • State the problem • The topic must be of sufficient significance to motivate a respondent and justify the research effort • Select the participants • Must be able to provide the desired information • Must be willing to participate Obj. 4.2

Conducting Survey Research • Constructing the questionnaire • Appearance • Visually attractive – use of white space • Brief • Carefully planned content and item formats • Clearly identify sub-topics • Use structured items if possible • Use responses that can be checked or circled rather than written Obj. 4.5

Conducting Survey Research • Methods to collect data • Mailed surveys • Advantages – efficient, inexpensive, easily standardized, easy to score, anonymous or confidential • Disadvantages – low response rate, inability to probe • E-mailed surveys • Advantages – quick, efficient, inexpensive, easily standardized, easy to score • Disadvantages – can only assure confidentiality, respondents might not have access to e-mail Obj. 4.4

Conducting Survey Research • Telephone surveys • Advantages – high response rates, efficient • Disadvantages – requires lists of telephone numbers, requires training • Personal administration • Advantages – efficient if respondents are in close proximity to the administrator, allows for probes • Disadvantages – time consuming, expensive, requires training • Personal interview • Advantages – rich complete responses • Disadvantages – little standardization, takes time to administer, expensive Obj. 4.4

Conducting Survey Research • Types of items • Two approaches to writing an item • Structured items – closed-ended, selection • Unstructured – open-ended, supply • Two disadvantages are that respondents will not take the time to respond and the responses are difficult to score objectively • Specific types • Scales • Likert • Semantic differential • Rankings • Checklists • Free responses Obj. 4.6 & 4.7

Conducting Survey Research • Qualities of good items • Address single concept • Avoid jargon • Include point of reference • Avoid leading questions • Avoid sensitive questions • Do not assume facts not necessarily true • Pretested • Provide information on how to respond • Questionnaire design • Do not crowd items • Number pages and items • Do not put important questions at the end Obj. 4.8

Conducting Survey Research • Constructing a cover letter • Explains what is being asked and why • Content • A brief description of the study • Contact information • Organizational endorsements and support • Deadline for responding • Stamped self-addressed return envelope Obj. 4.7

Conducting Survey Research • Cover Letter Characteristics • Is brief, neat, and personalized • Gives reason to respond • Gives means to respond • Promises anonymity or confidentiality • Anonymity and confidentiality • Anonymity means no one can trace the respondent to his or her responses • Confidentiality means the researcher knows who responded but promises not to divulge that information • Used to track respondents and non-respondents • Usually ensured by coding names when the data is entered Obj. 4.9 & 4.10

Conducting Survey Research • Pretest the questionnaire • Reviews by three (3) or four (4) individuals • Provides information about deficiencies and suggestions for improvement • Follow-up activities • Reminder postcard • Second survey with a cover letter politely requesting a response • Telephoning a small sample of non-respondents Obj. 4.11 & 4.13

Conducting Survey Research • Two types of non-responses • Respondents not returning the survey • First mailings usually result in 30% - 50% response rate • Follow-up postcards usually add about 20% • Sending a second survey with a polite cover letter requesting participation usually adds about 10% Obj. 4.13

Conducting Survey Research • Respondents not returning the survey (cont.) • Concerns with generalizing from the results of the respondents given the lack of information from the non-respondents • Use of telephone interviews to collect responses from a few non-respondents • Comparing these responses to those of the respondents • Comparing respondents and non-respondents on demographic variables to ascertain any systematic differences Obj. 4.12

Conducting Survey Research • Two types of non-responses (cont.) • Respondents not completing items • Be certain this is taken into account when summarizing scores • Simply adding scores will not reflect the true score of a participant if he or she has left some items blank • Averaging those items to which a participant has responded takes into account his or her blank responses Obj. 4.12

Conducting Survey Research • Tabulating responses • Closed-ended items • Scantrons • Electronic spreadsheets (e.g., Excel) • Statistical software (e.g., SPSS-Windows) • Open-ended items • Code answers according to perceived patterns Obj. 4.14

Conducting Survey Research • Analyzing results • Total sample size and return rate • Responses to each item • Average score and percentage of the sample responding • Subscale scores • Average score of items on the subscale • Total score • Average score of all items Obj. 4.14

Conducting Interviews • An interview is the oral, in-person administration of a questionnaire to each member of a sample. Obj. 5.1

Advantages More in-depth Flexible Gives opportunity to establish rapport Allows immediate follow-up Disadvantages May be biased by interviewer Time-consuming and expensive Requires skill Interview Studies Obj. 5.2

Conducting Interview Research • Define the problem • Identify potential interviewees • Construct an interview guide • A written protocol that indicates what questions are to be asked, in what order, and how much prompting and probing is permitted Obj. 5.4 & 5.5

Conducting Interview Research Interview Guide (continued) • Assures that all interviews will be conducted in the same manner • Generally uses semi-structured and unstructured items • Pretest the interview • Identifies deficiencies and suggests improvements Obj. 5.5 & 5.6

Conducting Interview Research • Administer the interview • Conducting an interview effectively requires training, effective communication skills, and good interpersonal skills • Guidelines • Be as brief as possible • Explain terms that the interviewee might not understand • Do not use leading questions • Do more listening and less talking Obj. 5.3

Conducting Interview Research • Record the responses • Manually recording • Cumbersome and slow • Likely to miss important information • Mechanical recording • Cassette tapes and videos • Captures most, if not all, of the information • Permits reviewing of the information • Causes potential discomfort on the interviewee’s part • Can malfunction Obj. 5.7

Educational Research