Ch. 2 Landscapes and People

1. Ch. 2 Landscapes and People Time and Space: The Northern Mountains, The Plains, The Peninsula 2. People: Population, Categories of Society, Hunter-gatherers, pastoralists-peasants, Townsfolk 3. Creation of Castes: Varna, Jati

2. 1. Time and Space • The concept of time includes: 1. Cyclical and linear time • Cyclical time is component of cosmology: Mahayuga (great age): 4,320,000 years. • Each mahayuga consists of 4 cycles: Krita, Dvapara, Treta, Kali. • Imagined as a bull: loosing one leg every age. During Kali which is the present age, the bull is said to be dwelling only on one leg. • Each age brings declining life, time and standard. • Linear time is beginning and end of human history. It can take the shape of geneology of a clan or dynasty: The human life span of a biography or the innumerable chronicles written to assert the authority of kings and dynasties. • Linear time is the context for heroes and kings, and for the chronicles of institutions and states.

3. http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/images/IndiaMap_tourism.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/maps.htm&h=1306&w=990&sz=234&tbnid=1I1qpRjCYY3EZM:&tbnh=150&tbnw=114&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dindia%2Bmap&start=3&sa=X&oi=images&ct=image&cd=3http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/images/IndiaMap_tourism.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/maps.htm&h=1306&w=990&sz=234&tbnid=1I1qpRjCYY3EZM:&tbnh=150&tbnw=114&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dindia%2Bmap&start=3&sa=X&oi=images&ct=image&cd=3

5. India- the country • The historical identity of the subcontinent from Sanskrit and Iranian sources. • Hapthindu used in Avesta- The Zoroashtrian text • Saptasindhu • Hindush in Acheamenid inscriptions • Aryavarta- essentially the ganga plain • Hindustan-its modern name • Bharata varsha- in puranas • Arabic sources- al-hind

6. Cosmology • Earth as flat and circular with mount meru in the centre- surrounding mount Meru are the four continents (dvipas). • Southern continent is the Jambudvipa within this is located the country Bharatavarsha. • Included region from Hindukush to the Peninsula

7. The Northern Mountains • Hindu Kush, Sulaiman and Kirthar mountains on the north • Hindukush- elevated mountains-interface between Oxus and Indus valleys. • Passes in the north west: Bolan, Gomal and Khyber- Khyber used by the British to control Afghanisthan and limit Russia • Passes as points of contact between West Asia and India

8. The Himalayas: North and east: less communication than west- dangerous passes Karakorum highway- via Gilgit, Chitral and Hunza- West Asia- Tibet North-West: there was a continual influx of peoples, patterns of living and languages North-East more isolated

9. The Plains • The rivers of the north get water from Himalayas • Five rivers- Ravi, Sutlej, Beas, Chenab and Jhelum (Indus group). • Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati: • Saraswati- identified with Gaggar-Hakra- disappeared river • Brahmaputra river in the east.

10. The Peninsula • South of the Vindhya mountains and Narmada river. • Mountain ranges- east and west- Western ghats and Eastern ghats • Malabar hills part of the Western ghats- a number of caves- some used by Buddhists as cave temples • Ajanta- Ellora • Kanheri, Karle

11. A number of rivers • Central India- dense forests- region of tribal concenration • Munda, Oraon, Bhil, Gond, Santhal and Mina. • Coastal areas: East and West- West more trade and ports than east • East more fertile as rivers drain into the Indian ocean.

12. Population • Full name: Republic of India • Population: 1.1 billion (UN, 2005) • Capital: New Delhi • Area: 3.1 million sq km (1.2 million sq miles), excluding Indian-administered Kashmir (100,569 sq km/38,830 sq miles) • Major languages: Hindi, English and at least 16 other official languages • Major religions: Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism • Life expectancy: 62 years (men), 65 years (women) (UN) • Monetary unit: 1 Indian Rupee = 100 paise • Main exports: Agricultural products, textile goods, gems and jewellery, software services and technology, engineering goods, chemicals, leather products • GNI per capita: US $720 (World Bank, 2006) • Internet domain: .in • International dialling code: +91

13. Categories of Societies • Historically India had been the habitat of many societies: Hunter gatherers, Pastoralists, peasants and townsfolk. • Seen to be outsiders of the society: On the margins of society in the forests- major battles described in the traditional texts with different groups of these societies • Grama-village; aranya-forest; • Ksetra- field; vana-forest • Numerous forest societies still exist • Clan

14. pastoralists • Some pastoralists were nomadic • Kinship clans with Patriarchy • Rigveda- Aryan nomads- Pastoralists • A number of pastoralists from Central Asia • Parthians, Shakas, Kushans, Huns and Turks. • Cattle-keepers • Religion-shamans • Marriage system- based on kinship bonds

15. Peasants • Sedentary, permanent • Identified by Varnas (class) and not generally clan related • Linked to the emerging state- provided economic basis to the state

16. Townspeople • Linked to rural areas- • Craft and artisans • Religion • Market • Heterogeneous unlike the village

17. Creation of castes • Varna: color. Brahmana, Ksatriya, Vaisya, Sudra • Megasthenes- 7 classes- confused picture • Jati- birth- equivalent to the caste • Jati- exogamy- varna endogamy- marriages • Groups of people coming together as Hindus- given castes due to their profession. • No individual conversions Dharmasastras- purity of castes