Chapter 1: Psychology as a Science

1. Chapter 1: Psychology as a Science

2. Chapter Outline • What Is Psychology? • Contemporary Perspectives and Areas of Specialization • Scientific Method in Psychology

3. What is Psychology? (Slide 1 of 2) • Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. • Interested in using the scientific method to understand how living things think, feel, and act • Psychology • From the Greek • Psyche  Mind • Logos  The study of

4. What is Psychology? (Slide 2 of 2) • People often confuse psychology with psychiatry. • Psychiatry • A branch of medicine practiced by physicians concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders • Psychiatrists complete medical school and obtain an MD. • Psychologists complete graduate school and obtain a PhD or a PsyD.

5. Early Pioneers (Slide 1 of 4) • Wilhem Wundt (1832-1920) • The world’s first psychologist • Developed a method of studying known as introspection • Trained observers would report on the contents of their own immediate states of consciousness. • The consciousness model was later renamed structuralism by one of his students, Edward Titchener. • Structuralism sought to identify the components of the conscious mind.

6. Early Pioneers (Slide 2 of 4) • William James (1842-1910) • The first major American psychologist • Developed an approach to psychology known as functionalism • How the conscious mind helps humans survive and successfully adapt to their environment • Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) • The founder of psychoanalysis • Developed an approach to psychology through clinical practice • Developed a theory that all human behavior is determined by hidden or unconscious motives and desires that are sexual in nature • Developed therapy techniques and personality tests designed to reveal hidden or unconscious thought

7. Early Pioneers (Slide 3 of 4) • John Watson (1878-1958) • The founder of behaviorism • Said that psychology should study observable behavior • Underlying philosophy known as logical positivism • All knowledge should be expressed in terms that can be verified empirically or through direct observation • Sought to describe, explain, predict, and control behavior

8. Early Pioneers (Slide 4 of 4) • Women and ethnic minorities faced discrimination as pioneers in psychology. • Mary Calkins • First female president of the American Psychological Association • Margaret Washburn (1871-1939) • First woman to receive a PhD in psychology • George Sanchez (1906-1972) • Early pioneer in educational and cultural psychology

9. Contemporary Perspectives and Areas of Specialization (Slide 1 of 7) • The psychoanalysis and behaviorist perspectives still influence theory and research. • Psychoanalysis • Explaining personality: downplays Freud’s emphasis on sexual drives and emphasizes cultural experience instead • Rejects Freud’s view that personality development is complete by age 5; instead, accepts Erikson’s view that personality is continually shaped and changed • Behaviorism • B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) • Stressed the role of consequences in controlling behavior: People and other animals tend to repeat behaviors that are followed by positive consequences and tend to avoid behaviors that bring negative consequences.

10. Contemporary Perspectives and Areas of Specialization (Slide 2 of 7) • Humanistic psychology and positive psychology highlight personal growth. • Humanistic psychology emphasizes people’s innate capacity for personal growth and their ability to make conscious choice. • Carl Rogers (1902-1987) • Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) • Positive psychology: a scientific approach to studying optimal human functioning that asserts that the normal functioning of human beings cannot be accounted for with purely negative (or problem-focused) terms

11. Contemporary Perspectives and Areas of Specialization (Slide 3 of 7) • Cognitive psychology focuses on how the mind organizes and interprets experiences. • Cognitive psychology • From the Latin “to know” • An approach that attempts to understand behavior by studying how the mind organizes perceptions, processes information, and interprets experiences • The neuroscience perspective focuses on the nervous system. • Neuroscience perspective: an approach to psychology that attempts to understand behavior and mental processes by examining the nervous system

12. Contemporary Perspectives and Areas of Specialization (Slide 4 of 7) • Evolutionary psychology studies how behavior is shaped by natural selection. • Evolutionary psychology: an approach to psychology based on the principle of natural selection • Natural selection: The process by which organisms with inherited traits best suited to the environment reproduce more successfully than less well-adapted organisms over a number of generations which leads to evolutionary changes • Evolution: The genetic changes that occur in a species over generations dues to natural selection

13. Contemporary Perspectives and Areas of Specialization (Slide 5 of 7) • The sociocultural perspective studies how behavior is shaped by social and cultural forces. • Sociocultural perspective: an approach to psychology that emphasizes social and cultural influences on behavior • Culture: the total lifestyle of people from a particular social grouping, including all the ideas, symbols, preferences, and material objects they share • Dynamic systems theory: the idea that new forms of behavior emerge from the interactions between people’s biology and their culture and physical environment

14. Contemporary Perspectives and Areas of Specialization (Slide 6 of 7) • Individualism and collectivism • Individualism: a philosophy of life stressing the priority of personal goals over group goals, a preference for loosely knit social relationships, and a desire to be relatively autonomous of others’ influences • Collectivism: a philosophy of life stressing the priority of group goals over individual goals, a preference for tightly knit social relationships, and a willingness to submit to the influence of ones’ group

15. Contemporary Perspectives and Areas of Specialization (Slide 7 of 7) • Seven areas of specialization for research psychologists • Neuroscience • Developmental psychology • Experimental psychology • Comparative psychology • Cognitive psychology • Personality psychology • Social psychology • Four areas of specialization for applied psychologists • Clinical psychology • Counseling psychology • Industrial/organizational psychology • Educational and school psychology

16. Scientific Methods in Psychology (Slide 1 of 12) • Scientific methods minimize error and lead to dependable generalizations. • Scientific method: a set of procedures used in science to gather, analyze, and interpret information in a way that reduces error and leads to dependable generalizations

17. Scientific Methods in Psychology (Slide 2 of 12) • Scientific methods minimize error and lead to dependable generalization. • Sample: a group of subjects selected to participate in a research study • Population: all the members of an identifiable group from which a sample is drawn • Random selection: a procedure for selecting a sample of people to study in which everyone in the population has an equal chance of being chosen • Critical thinking: the process of deciding what to believe and how to act based on careful evaluation of the evidence

18. Figure 1-3: Stages in the Psychological Research Process

19. Scientific Methods in Psychology (Slide 3 of 12) • The first stage involves selecting a topic and searching the literature. • Topics generally come from the following: • Someone else’s research • An incident in the daily news • Personal experience • Once a topic is selected, the following occurs: • Investigators search the scientific literature to determine whether prior investigations of the topic exist • Literature searches use a number of computer based databases • Searching for research literature may be thought of as a never-ending endeavor because it occurs throughout the study.

20. Scientific Methods in Psychology (Slide 4 of 12) • The second stage involves developing a theory and hypothesis. • Theory: an organized system of ideas that seeks to explain why two or more events are related • Hypothesis: an educated guess or prediction about the nature of things based upon a theory

21. Figure 1-4: The Theory-Hypothesis Relationship

22. Scientific Methods in Psychology (Slide 5 of 12) • The third stage involves selecting a scientific method and obtaining IRB approval (ethical evaluation). • Seek to determine the relationship between two or more factors known as variables. • Variables: in scientific research, factors that can be measured and can vary • Operational definitions: a scientist’s precise description of how a variable has been quantified so that it can be measured • Replication: repeating a previous study’s scientific procedures using different participants in an attempt to duplicate the findings

23. Scientific Methods in Psychology (Slide 6 of 12) • The fourth stage involves collecting and analyzing data and reporting results. • The following are three basic techniques of data collection: • Self-reports • Pro: Measures important subjective data • Con: Relies of people accurately describing internal stats • Direct observation • Preferred over self-report by some researchers • Archival information: accumulated records from a wide variety of sources

24. Scientific Methods in Psychology (Slide 7 of 12) • Once the data are collected, the researcher must analyze them. • Statistical analysis • Descriptive statistics: numbers that summarize and describe the behavior or characteristics of a particular sample or participants in a study • Inferential statistics: mathematical analyses that are used to determine whether the data support or do not support the research hypothesis • Is there a significant difference? • Report results.

25. Scientific Methods in Psychology (Slide 8 of 12) • Replication: repeating a previous study’s scientific procedures using different participants in an attempt to duplicate the findings • Meta-analysis researchers analyze the findings across many studies • Meta-analysis: the use of statistical techniques to sum up a body of similar studies in order to objectively estimate the reliability and overall size of the effect

26. Scientific Methods in Psychology (Slide 9 of 12) • Description is the goal of observational research. • Naturalistic observation: a scientific method that describes how people or animals behave in their natural environment • Participant observation: a descriptive scientific method in which a group is studied from within by a researcher who records behavior as it occurs in its natural environment • Case study: a descriptive scientific method involving in-depth analysis of a single subject, usually a person

27. Scientific Methods in Psychology (Slide 10 of 12) • Correlational research is used to analyze the nature of the relationship between variables. • Research designed to examine the nature of the relationship between two or more naturally occurring variables • Survey: a structured set of questions or statements given to a group of people to measure their attitudes, beliefs, values, or behaviors

28. Scientific Methods in Psychology (Slide 11 of 12) • Experimental research determines cause-effect relationship. • Experimental research: research designed to test cause-effect relationships between variables • Independent variable: the experimental variable that the researcher manipulates • Dependent variable: the experimental variable that is measured because it is believed to depend on the manipulated changes in the independent variable

29. Scientific Methods in Psychology (Slide 12 of 12) • Random assignment: placement of research participants into experimental conditions in a manner that guarantees that all have an equal chance of being exposed to each level of the independent variable • Experimental condition: the condition in an experiment whereby participants are exposed to different levels of the independent variable • Control condition: the condition in an experiment in which participants are not exposed to the independent variable • There are no “final truths” in science.