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Business Research Methods

Business Research Methods. 15. Estimation. Definitions. An estimator of a population parameter is a random variable that depends on sample information . . . whose value provides an approximation to this unknown parameter A specific value of that random variable is called an estimate.

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Business Research Methods

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  1. Business Research Methods 15. Estimation Dr. Basim Makhool

  2. Definitions • An estimator of a population parameteris • a random variable that depends on sample information . . . • whose value provides an approximation to this unknown parameter • A specific value of that random variable is called an estimate Dr. Basim Makhool

  3. Estimation • Estimation is the process of using sample data to draw inferences about the population Sample information Population parameters Inferences

  4. Point and Interval Estimates • A point estimate is a single number, • a confidence interval provides additional information about variability Upper Confidence Limit Lower Confidence Limit Point Estimate Width of confidence interval Dr. Basim Makhool

  5. Criteria for good estimates 1) Unbiased – correct on average • the expected value of the estimate is equal to the true value • A point estimator is said to be an unbiased estimator of the parameter  if the expected value, or mean, of the sampling distribution of is , • Examples: • The sample mean is an unbiased estimator of μ • The sample variance is an unbiased estimator of σ2 • The sample proportion is an unbiased estimator of P Dr. Basim Makhool

  6. Bias • Let be an estimator of  • The bias in is defined as the difference between its mean and  • The bias of an unbiased estimator is 0 Dr. Basim Makhool

  7. 2) Consistency • Let be an estimator of  • is a consistent estimator of  if the difference between the expected value of and  decreases as the sample size increases • Consistency is desired when unbiased estimators cannot be obtained Dr. Basim Makhool

  8. 3) Precise – small sampling variancethe estimate is close to the true value for all possible samples • Suppose there are several unbiased estimators of  • The most efficient estimator or the minimum variance unbiased estimator of  is the unbiased estimator with the smallest variance • Let and be two unbiased estimators of , based on the same number of sample observations. Then, • is said to be more efficient than if • The relative efficiency of with respect to is the ratio of their variances: Dr. Basim Makhool

  9. Point Estimates We can estimate a Population Parameter … with a SampleStatistic (a Point Estimate) μ x Mean Proportion P Dr. Basim Makhool

  10. Confidence Intervals • How much uncertainty is associated with a point estimate of a population parameter? • An interval estimate provides more information about a population characteristic than does a point estimate • Such interval estimates are called confidence intervals Dr. Basim Makhool

  11. Confidence Interval Estimate • An interval gives a range of values: • Takes into consideration variation in sample statistics from sample to sample • Based on observation from 1 sample • Gives information about closeness to unknown population parameters • Stated in terms of level of confidence • Can never be 100% confident Dr. Basim Makhool

  12. Confidence Interval and Confidence Level • If P(a <  < b) = 1 -  then the interval from a to b is called a 100(1 - )% confidence interval of . • The quantity (1 - ) is called the confidence level of the interval ( between 0 and 1) • In repeated samples of the population, the true value of the parameter  would be contained in 100(1 - )% of intervals calculated this way. • The confidence interval calculated in this manner is written as a <  < b with 100(1 - )% confidence Dr. Basim Makhool

  13. I am 95% confident that μ is between 40 & 60. Estimation Process Random Sample Population Mean X = 50 (mean, μ, is unknown) Sample Dr. Basim Makhool

  14. Confidence Level, (1-) (continued) • Suppose confidence level = 95% • Also written (1 - ) = 0.95 • A relative frequency interpretation: • From repeated samples, 95% of all the confidence intervals that can be constructed will contain the unknown true parameter • A specific interval either will contain or will not contain the true parameter • No probability involved in a specific interval Dr. Basim Makhool

  15. General Formula • The general formula for all confidence intervals is: • The value of the reliability factor depends on the desired level of confidence Point Estimate ± (Reliability Factor)(Standard Error) Dr. Basim Makhool

  16. Confidence Intervals Confidence Intervals Population Mean Population Proportion σ2 Known σ2 Unknown Dr. Basim Makhool

  17. Confidence Interval for μ(σ2 Known) • Assumptions • Population variance σ2is known • Population is normally distributed • If population is not normal, use large sample • Confidence interval estimate: (where z/2 is the normal distribution value for a probability of /2 in each tail) Dr. Basim Makhool

  18. Margin of Error • The confidence interval, • Can also be written as where ME is called the margin of error • The interval width, w, is equal to twice the margin of error Dr. Basim Makhool

  19. Reducing the Margin of Error The margin of error can be reduced if • the population standard deviation can be reduced (σ↓) • The sample size is increased (n↑) • The confidence level is decreased, (1 – ) ↓ Dr. Basim Makhool

  20. Finding the Reliability Factor, z/2 • Consider a 95% confidence interval: z = -1.96 z = 1.96 Z units: 0 Lower Confidence Limit Upper Confidence Limit X units: Point Estimate Point Estimate • Find z.025 = 1.96 from the standard normal distribution table Dr. Basim Makhool

  21. Common Levels of Confidence • Commonly used confidence levels are 90%, 95%, and 99% Confidence Coefficient, Confidence Level Z/2 value 80% 90% 95% 98% 99% 99.8% 99.9% .80 .90 .95 .98 .99 .998 .999 1.28 1.645 1.96 2.33 2.58 3.08 3.27 Dr. Basim Makhool

  22. Example • A sample of 11 circuits from a large normal population has a mean resistance of 2.20 ohms. We know from past testing that the population standard deviation is 0.35 ohms. • Determine a 95% confidence interval for the true mean resistance of the population. Dr. Basim Makhool

  23. Example (continued) • A sample of 11 circuits from a large normal population has a mean resistance of 2.20 ohms. We know from past testing that the population standard deviation is .35 ohms. • Solution: Dr. Basim Makhool

  24. Interpretation • We are 95% confident that the true mean resistance is between 1.9932 and 2.4068 ohms • Although the true mean may or may not be in this interval, 95% of intervals formed in this manner will contain the true mean Dr. Basim Makhool

  25. Student’s t Distribution • Consider a random sample of n observations • with mean x and standard deviation s • from a normally distributed population with mean μ • Then the variable follows the Student’s t distribution with (n - 1) degrees of freedom Dr. Basim Makhool

  26. Confidence Interval for μ(σ2 Unknown) • If the population standard deviation σ is unknown, we can substitute the sample standard deviation, s • This introduces extra uncertainty, since s is variable from sample to sample • So we use the t distribution instead of the normal distribution Dr. Basim Makhool

  27. Confidence Interval for μ(σ Unknown) (continued) • Assumptions • Population standard deviation is unknown • Population is normally distributed • If population is not normal, use large sample • Use Student’s t Distribution • Confidence Interval Estimate: where tn-1,α/2 is the critical value of the t distribution with n-1 d.f. and an area of α/2 in each tail: Dr. Basim Makhool

  28. Student’s t Distribution • The t is a family of distributions • The t value depends on degrees of freedom (d.f.) • Number of observations that are free to vary after sample mean has been calculated d.f. = n - 1 Dr. Basim Makhool

  29. Student’s t Distribution Note: t Z as n increases Standard Normal (t with df = ∞) t (df = 13) t-distributions are bell-shaped and symmetric, but have ‘fatter’ tails than the normal t (df = 5) t 0 Dr. Basim Makhool

  30. Student’s t Table Upper Tail Area Let: n = 3 df = n - 1 = 2  = .10/2 =.05 df .10 .025 .05 1 12.706 3.078 6.314 2 1.886 4.303 2.920 /2 = .05 3 3.182 1.638 2.353 The body of the table contains t values, not probabilities 0 t 2.920 Dr. Basim Makhool

  31. t distribution values With comparison to the Z value Confidence t t t Z Level (10 d.f.)(20 d.f.)(30 d.f.) ____ .80 1.372 1.325 1.310 1.282 .90 1.812 1.725 1.697 1.645 .95 2.228 2.086 2.042 1.960 .99 3.169 2.845 2.750 2.576 Note: t Z as n increases Dr. Basim Makhool

  32. Example A random sample of n = 25 has x = 50 and s = 8. Form a 95% confidence interval for μ • d.f. = n – 1 = 24, so The confidence interval is Dr. Basim Makhool

  33. Confidence Intervals for the Population Proportion, p • An interval estimate for the population proportion ( P ) can be calculated by adding an allowance for uncertainty to the sample proportion ( ) Dr. Basim Makhool

  34. Confidence Intervals for the Population Proportion, p (continued) • Recall that the distribution of the sample proportion is approximately normal if the sample size is large, with standard deviation • We will estimate this with sample data: Dr. Basim Makhool

  35. Confidence Interval Endpoints • Upper and lower confidence limits for the population proportion are calculated with the formula • where • z/2 is the standard normal value for the level of confidence desired • is the sample proportion • n is the sample size Dr. Basim Makhool

  36. Example • A random sample of 100 people shows that 25 are left-handed. • Form a 95% confidence interval for the true proportion of left-handers Dr. Basim Makhool

  37. Example (continued) • A random sample of 100 people shows that 25 are left-handed. Form a 95% confidence interval for the true proportion of left-handers. Dr. Basim Makhool

  38. Interpretation • We are 95% confident that the true percentage of left-handers in the population is between 16.51% and 33.49%. • Although the interval from 0.1651 to 0.3349 may or may not contain the true proportion, 95% of intervals formed from samples of size 100 in this manner will contain the true proportion. Dr. Basim Makhool

  39. Estimation: Additional Topics Topics Population Means, Dependent Samples Population Means, Independent Samples Population Proportions Population Variance Examples: Same group before vs. after treatment Group 1 vs. independent Group 2 Proportion 1 vs. Proportion 2 Variance of a normal distribution Dr. Basim Makhool

  40. Dependent Samples Tests Means of 2 Related Populations • Paired or matched samples • Repeated measures (before/after) • Use difference between paired values: • Eliminates Variation Among Subjects • Assumptions: • Both Populations Are Normally Distributed Dependent samples • di = xi - yi Dr. Basim Makhool

  41. Mean Difference The ith paired difference is di , where Dependent samples • di = xi - yi The point estimate for the population mean paired difference is d : The sample standard deviation is: n is the number of matched pairs in the sample Dr. BasimMakhool

  42. Confidence Interval forMean Difference The confidence interval for difference between population means, μd , is Dependent samples Where n = the sample size (number of matched pairs in the paired sample) Dr. Basim Makhool

  43. Confidence Interval forMean Difference (continued) • The margin of error is • tn-1,/2 is the value from the Student’s t distribution with (n – 1) degrees of freedom for which Dependent samples Dr. Basim Makhool

  44. Paired Samples Example • Six people sign up for a weight loss program. You collect the following data:  Weight: PersonBefore (x)After (y)Difference,di 1 136125 11 2 205195 10 3 157150 7 4 138140 - 2 5 175165 10 6 166160 6 42 di d = n = 7.0 Dr. Basim Makhool

  45. Paired Samples Example (continued) • For a 95% confidence level, the appropriate t value is tn-1,/2 = t5,.025 = 2.571 • The 95% confidence interval for the difference between means, μd, is Since this interval contains zero, we cannot be 95% confident, given this limited data, that the weight loss program helps people lose weight Dr. Basim Makhool

  46. Difference Between Two Means • Different data sources • Unrelated • Independent • Sample selected from one population has no effect on the sample selected from the other population • The point estimate is the difference between the two sample means: Goal: Form a confidence interval for the difference between two population means, μx – μy Population means, independent samples x – y Dr. Basim Makhool

  47. Difference Between Two Means (continued) Population means, independent samples σx2 and σy2 known Confidence interval uses z/2 σx2 and σy2 unknown σx2 and σy2 assumed equal Confidence interval uses a value from the Student’s t distribution σx2 and σy2 assumed unequal Dr. Basim Makhool

  48. σx2 and σy2 Known Population means, independent samples • Assumptions: • Samples are randomly and independently drawn • both population distributions are normal • Population variances are known * σx2 and σy2 known σx2 and σy2 unknown Dr. Basim Makhool

  49. σx2 and σy2 Known (continued) When σx and σy are known and both populations are normal, the variance of X – Y is Population means, independent samples * σx2 and σy2 known …and the random variable has a standard normal distribution σx2 and σy2 unknown Dr. Basim Makhool

  50. Confidence Interval, σx2 and σy2 Known Population means, independent samples * σx2 and σy2 known The confidence interval for μx – μy is: σx2 and σy2 unknown Dr. Basim Makhool

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