David Fenwick

1. A globally-harmonised Consumer Price Index: a review of the need for such an index and the extent to which it is and can be met and the implications for the ILO resolution on Consumer Price Indices David Fenwick

2. Overview • It is important to gauge the extent to which the indices currently produced meet the needs of the international community needs to be investigated • The demand and need for greater harmonisation of consumer price indices is increasing • Consideration needs to be given to the conceptual basis of such an index • The paper • Identifies what issues remain to be resolved and their importance • Considers how much the lack of harmonisation is a barrier to the monitoring and analysis of inflation globally • Analyses the experiences of both developed and developing countries • Argues for greater proactive involvement of the international community in defining and producing a globally harmonised CPI • Argues that an updated ILO resolution would facilitate progress

3. Background • 2003 ILO Resolution on CPIs does not adopt a prescriptive approach • Against this background it can be noted that • Since the adoption of the resolution the consensus on what constitutes a “fit-for-purpose” CPI has increased • growing realisation that no one construct is fit for all purposes • more statistical offices adopting a “family of indices” approach and re-computing the same prices data to produce alternative measures • greater awareness and understanding amongst producers and users of published indices of how these compare with the “ideal” • Harmonisation was not high on the agenda when the 2003 Resolution was drafted • Although preamble mentions “recognising the usefulness of such standards in enhancing the international comparability of the statistics” this is not followed-up

4. The current position - the ILO resolution itself • Wording can sometimes at best be vague and at worst unhelpful in a number of key areas • Geographical coverage. Paragraph 11 of the resolution states that it “should be defined as widely as possible” • Implies but does not state explicitly that institutional households should be included • In the same paragraph unhelpfully for international comparability gives the compiler a choice of expenditure coverage without offering a comparative evaluation • consumption of the resident population (resident consumption) or consumption expenditure within the country (domestic consumption)

5. The current position - the ILO resolution itself • Owner-occupier housing costs. Paragraph 13 of the resolution states that “in accordance with its main purpose, the CPI should cover all types of consumer goods and service of significance to the reference population” • But in paragraph 14 states as a matter of fact without any judgement on its appropriateness, that “some countries regard expenditures on the purchase of houses entirely as a capital investment and, as such, exclude them entirely” • This may be the case in some countries but national accounts protocols are not clear cut & it is not consistent with a cost-of-living index concept

6. The current position - the ILO resolution itself • Expenditure weights. Paragraph 19 of the resolution states that the composition of the weights “follows directly from the scope as well as the choice between the “acquisition”, “use” and “payments” approach” • But unhelpfully doesn’t elaborate • Paragraph 25 states that “where the weight reference period differs significantly from the prices reference period the weights should be price updated but that where it is likely that price-updated weights are less representative • The omission of “likely” and the replacement of “may” with “should” would provide a better basis for guidance

7. The current position - the ILO resolution itself • Expenditure classification. Paragraph 20 states that “for the purposes of international comparability the classification should also be reconcilable with the most recent version of the UN Classification of Individual Consumption according to Purpose (COICOP), at least at Divisional level” • At best this leaves the analyst to undertake a mapping across from the national classification to COICOP to facilitate an inter-country comparison

8. The current position - the ILO resolution itself • Acquisition, use or payment. Paragraph 15 of the resolution quite rightly points out that “it is important to consider whether the purposes for which the index is used are best satisfied by defining consumption in terms of acquisition, use or payment” • but rather than positively affirming which concept should be used for which purpose describes the circumstances in which countries “often use” the different concepts • when in paragraph 17 owner-occupier housing costs are covered, a description of the different applications is given without providing direction

9. Compliance to the ILO resolution • Variable compliance not only in developing countries but also amongst countries more generally • Geographical Coverage - paragraph 11 of the resolution states that the geographical coverage “should be defined as widely as possible”. But 11 countries restrict their CPIs to urban areas, including France, India, Russia & the USA • Owner-occupier housing costs – the 9 countries exclude owner-occupier housing costs including France, Italy, Canada and Brazil • Expenditure classification – it is noteworthy that Canada doesn’t use COICOP • Expenditure weights – a third of countries are non-compliant, updating weights less frequently than every five years • Basket update - the USA entry states that “the current CPI basket of goods and services is derived form the consumer expenditure survey over the years 1998 to 2000”

10. The need and benefits of a globally harmonised CPI • arguments for developing a globally harmonised measure are two-fold • User need and demand. It should be noted that the two are not necessarily synonymous. Manifests itself in • Individual sub-global initiatives to produce a harmonised index • Central Banks and other financial institutions: monetary policy. An inflation target has been increasingly used to define and operate a monetary framework • 28 inflation targeting countries • 42 central banks have some form of floating exchange rate mechanism • Anchoring of inflation expectations as an important element • As an enabler for countries to improve CPI methodologies

11. Defining a globally-harmonised CPI • Non-trivial issue • European Union HICP & Monetary Policy of the ECB • Index took a number of years to develop to first publication • Lack of resolution. • Exclusion of most elements of owner-occupier housing costs undermines relevance • But two concerns regarding the use of an HICP including owner-occupier housing costs as a headline rate • Could impact on the level and the volatility of annual HICP inflation • Could also add to cross-country divergence in terms of HICP inflation • Could be more difficult to meet convergence criteria where there are divergent movements in house prices in EU countries. • Data on HICPs including owner-occupier housing costs, will most likely be not as timely

12. Defining a globally-harmonised CPI • Conceptual purity versus pragmatism (the axiomatic approach) • UN Manual on Consumer Price Indices provides a comprehensive overview of the conceptual and theoretical issues associated with consumer price indices • The system of National Accounts provides the basic guidelines for a higher level framework • steer users towards a fixed basket approach except for a compensation index • But other practical issues arise • Need for pragmatism • Choice between an arithmetic and geometric mean • Fixed basket approach versus a COLI • But GM is resilient, producing stable results not dependent on the vagaries of the sample design for price collection. ideal for international comparisons • Can be argued that harmonisation requires a degree of prescriptiveness on sample design to reduce the variance in prices – e.g.by using homogeneous elementary aggregates and highly specified item descriptions. Closer integration with ICP.

13. Defining a globally-harmonised CPI • Most published CPIs are somewhere along the continuum between a pure price index. This reflects five things: • The evolution of CPIs, which in large part began as compensation indices • Limited discussion within NSI, particularly of conceptual issues, in early years • Practical limitations of measurement • A lack of informed debate with users (who are now more expert) • Limited motivation to consider issues, compared with the need under increased globalisation

14. Conclusions • A globally harmonised CPI is desirable • Its design needs to consider conceptual, axiomatic, and practical compilation issues. • The ILO Manual on Consumer Price Indices, particularly Section 2 on the theoretical aspects, provides a starting point • User consultation should be an important element of the process • Experimentation should be undertaken to measure the practical and numerical impact of different options • Much work has already been undertaken in the context of the development of the European Union HICP • Countries publish a range of price indices but these tend to be presented separately as specialised, stand-alone measures • This restricts analysis • Coherence and integration of CPIs within a “family” will enhance analytical capability • Users also need up-to-date metadata and a numerical reconciliation

15. In Summary With increased globalisation the time has come to redress this by implementing an international programme of work with a view to coming up with a recommended definition for a globally harmonised CPI for inclusion in the next review of the ILO resolution on consumer price indices and in the next edition of the ILO manual on CPIs.

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