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Chapter 9 Memory

Chapter 9 Memory. Memory. Memory persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information Flashbulb Memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. Information Processing. Memory as Information Processing similar to a computer write to file

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Chapter 9 Memory

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  1. Chapter 9 Memory

  2. Memory • Memory • persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information • Flashbulb Memory • a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

  3. Information Processing • Memory as Information Processing • similar to a computer • write to file • save to disk • read from disk

  4. Memory • Encoding • Getting information into our brain • Storage • Retaining information over time • Retrieval • Getting information out of memory

  5. Atkinson/Shiffrin’s3-Stage Processing Model • Sensory Memory • the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system • Short-Term Memory/Working Memory • activated memory that holds a few items briefly • focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information • Long-Term Memory • the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

  6. Encoding • Automatic Processing • unconscious encoding of incidental information • space • time • frequency • well-learned information • word meanings • we can learn automatic processing • reading backwards

  7. Encoding • Effortful Processing • requires attention and conscious effort • Can help memory through Rehearsal • Rehearsal • conscious repetition of information • to maintain it in consciousness • to encode it for storage

  8. Encoding • Spacing Effect • distributed practice yields better long- term retention than massed practice • Serial Position Effect • Tendency to remember first & last better than middle • Self in Reference Effect • Good recall for those things that we can relate to ourselves

  9. What Do We Encode? • Visual Encoding • encoding of picture images • Acoustic Encoding • encoding of sound • especially sound of words • Semantic Encoding • encoding of meaning • including meaning of words

  10. Encoding - Imagery • Imagery • mental pictures • a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding • Mnemonics • memory aids • especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

  11. Encoding - Chunking • Definition: organizing items into familiar, meaningful units • Phone #’s • Often occurs automatically • Use of acronyms • HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior • Ex: • Bun: Light/Shadow • Shoe: Size Distance • Tree: Interposition • Door: Shape Constancy

  12. Encoding - Hierarchies • Broad concepts subdivided into categories and subcategories • More information remembered if grouped than if presented randomly • Ex: • Organize Chapter • Take chapter notes in outline form

  13. Storage:Retaining Information • Iconic Memory • Short memory for what you see • a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second • Echoic Memory • Short memory for what you hear

  14. Storage:Short-Term Memory • Short-Term Memory • limited in duration and capacity • “magical” number 7+/-2

  15. Storage:Long-Term Memory • How does storage work? • Karl Lashley (1950) • rats learn maze • lesioned cortex • Conclusion: memory not stored in 1 specific spot • Synaptic changes • Experience modifies brain’s neural networks • Increased activity in pathway connections are formed/strengthened • Long-term Potentiation • increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation • Drugs that block LTP in mice interfere with learning

  16. Storage:Long-Term Memory • Strong emotions make for stronger memories • some stress hormones boost learning and retention • When excited or stressed, release hormones that boost memory

  17. Storage:Long-Term Memory • Explicit Memory • memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare • also called declarative memory • hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage • Example of birds • Implicit Memory • retention independent of conscious recollection • also called procedural memory • Cerebellum – patient conditioned with tack

  18. Retrieval: Getting Information Out • Recall • retrieve information learned earlier • fill-in-the blank test • Recognition • identify items previously learned • multiple-choice test

  19. Retrieval • Priming • activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory • Ex: • Hear/see word “rabbit” • Picture in mind • Spell word _________

  20. Retrieval Cues: Context • Deja Vu (French)--already seen • cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience • Mood-congruent Memory • tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood • memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues • State-dependent Memory • what is learned in one state can more easily be remembered when in same state

  21. Forgetting • Forgetting as encoding failure • Information never enters the long-term memory

  22. Retrieval • Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory

  23. Forgetting as Interference • Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information • Proactive (forward acting) Interference • disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information • Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference • disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information

  24. Forgetting- Interference • Motivated Forgetting • people unknowingly revise memories • Repression • defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

  25. Memory Construction • We filter information and fill in missing pieces • Misinformation Effect • incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event • Source Amnesia • attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)

  26. Memory Construction • Memories of Abuse • Repressed or Constructed? • Child sexual abuse does occur • Some adults do actually forget such episodes • False Memory Syndrome • condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience • sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

  27. Memory Construction • Most people can agree on the following: • Injustice happens • Incest happens • Forgetting happens • Recovered memories are commonplace • Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are especially unreliable • Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable • Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting

  28. Improve Your Memory • Study repeatedly to boost recall • Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material • Make material personally meaningful • Use mnemonic devices • associate with peg words--something already stored • make up story • chunk--acronyms

  29. Improve Your Memory • Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and mood • Recall events while they are fresh-- before you encounter misinformation • Minimize interference • Test your own knowledge • rehearse • determine what you do not yet know

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