OCR Examinations AS / A Level Physical Education AS 3875 A 7875 Module 2562 : Section B part 1

1. OCR ExaminationsAS / A Level Physical EducationAS 3875A 7875 Module 2562 : Section B part 1 Acquiring, Performing and Teaching Movement Skills

2. 27 - PERCEPTION AND SELECTIVE ATTENTION 28 - MEMORY SYSTEMS 29 - BASIC MODEL OF THE MEMORY PROCESS 30 - BASIC MODEL OF THE MEMORY PROCESS 31 - IMPROVING RETENTION 32 - IMPROVING INFORMATION RETENTION 33 - REACTION TIME - MOVEMENT / RESPONSE TIME 34 - REACTION TIME - SIMPLE / CHOICE REACTION TIME 35 - PSYCHOLOGICAL REFRACTORY PERIOD 36 - FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION TIME 37 - THE ROLE OF ANTICIPATION 38 - IMPROVING RESPONSE TIMES CUES / DECISION MAKING / ATTENTIONAL FOCUS 39 - FEEDBACK - IMPORTANCE 40 - FEEDBACK - INTRINSIC 41 - FEEDBACK EXTRINSIC / KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE / RESULTS 42 - FUNCTIONS OF EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK FEEDBACK DEPENDENCY 43 - FEEDBACK CONCURRENT / TERMINAL / POSITIVE / NEGATIVE 44 - INFORMATION PROCESSING AND YOUR PPP 45 - MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES - SUBROUTINES 46 - MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES - DISCUS THROW 47 - MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES - TENNIS SERVE 48 - MOTOR CONTROL - OPEN LOOP CONTROL 49 - MOTOR CONTROL - CLOSED LOOP CONTROL 50 - SCHEMA (SCHMIDT’s THEORY) 51 - SCHEMA - RECALL SCHEMA 52 - SCHEMA - RECOGNITION SCHEMA Index 3 - CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL 4 - DEFINITIONS OF SKILL - CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL 5 - DEFINITIONS OF SKILL THE GUTHRIE KNAPP DEFINITION OF SKILL 6 - SKILL KEYWORDS 8 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL GROSS - FINE (MUSCULAR CONTROL) CONTINUUM 9 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL OPEN - CLOSED (ENVIRONMENTAL IFLUENCE) CONTINUUM 10 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL - DISCRETE - SERIAL - CONTINUOUS (CONTINUITY) CONTINUUM 11 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL EXTERNALLY-PACED - SELF-PACED (PACING) CONTINUUM 12 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL SIMPLE - COMPLEX (DIFFICULTY) CONTINUUM 13 - CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL LOW - HIGH ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM 14 - CHARACTERISTICS OF ABILITY PSYCHOMOTOR / PERCEPTUAL 15 - ABILITY - GROSS MOTOR / GENERAL / SPECIFIC / GROUPS 16 - SKILL DEVELOPMENT COGNITIVE / ASSOCIATIVE / AUTONOMOUS 17 - SKILL, ABILITY AND YOUR PPP 18 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - BASIC MODEL 19 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - SCHMIDT’s MODEL 20 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - WELFORD’s MODEL 21 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - WELFORD’s MODEL 22 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - WHITING’S MODEL 23 - INFORMATION PROCESSING - WHITING`S MODEL 24 - ATTENTION 25 - LIMITED ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY THEORIES SINGLE CHANNEL THEORY 26 - LIMITED ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY THEORIES MULTIPLE CHANNEL THEORY INDEX

3. The Characteristics of Skilful Performance CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL

4. USES OF THE WORD SKILL technique example : feint or dodge sport example : classifications quality example : skilful performance The Characteristics of Skilful Performance DEFINITIONS OF SKILL CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL • consistent • can be repeated correctly • learned • skill has been practised until retained in long term memory • predetermined • the performer has a goal • aesthetic • the movement is pleasing and looks good CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL • efficient • no waste of energy • the movement seems effortless • coordinated • flowing and fluid movement • controlled • the performer has control over the movement • good technique • the movement follows an accepted correct technical model SKILLED PERFORMERS • can vary the outcome • can vary the timing and scope of action • can focus attention appropriately • can anticipate

5. THE GUTHRIE KNAPP DEFINITION OF SKILL the learned ability to bring about predetermined results with maximum certainty often with the minimum outlay of time or energy or both The Characteristics of Skilful Performance DEFINITIONS OF SKILL • skill is learned • learning is a relatively permanent change in performance • performance is a temporary action

6. BALANCE a psychomotor ability - maintenance of the body’s centre of mass within the base of support to allow pause, change of direction, stillness CLASSIFICATION OF SKILL the means by which skills which have common characteristics are grouped together CLOSED SKILL a skill performed in a fixed environment, example : a discus throw CONTINUOUS SKILLS skills with no obvious beginnings and endings CONTINUUM OF SKILLS a range of skill characteristics COORDINATION a psychomotor ability which allows efficient transmission of information through the nervous system to create required movements DISCRETE SKILLS skills with clear beginnings and endings, example : discus throw EXTERNALLY-PACED SKILLS skills where the timing and form are determined by what is happening in the environment, example : receiving a pass from another player in a soccer game The Characteristics of Skilful Performance SKILL KEYWORDS

7. FINE SKILL skills involving small movements of specific body parts, example : potting a ball at snooker GROSS SKILL involve large muscle groups and movements of the whole body, example : discus throw LEARNING a relatively permanent change of performance resulting from practice or experience OPEN SKILLS skills in which the form of the action is determined by the environment and therefore is constantly changing, example : receiving a pass from another player in a soccer game SELF-PACED SKILLS the performer has control over the rate at which the action takes place and also the timing of the start of the action, example : discus throw SERIAL SKILLS where several distinct elements are joined together to form an integrated movement, example : triple jump The Characteristics of Skilful Performance SKILL KEYWORDS

8. GROSS - FINE (MUSCULAR CONTROL) CONTINUUM Classification of Movement Skills CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL GROSS FINE weight javelin netball cricket golf ten pin darts/ lifting throw pass stroke shot bowling snooker GROSS - FINE (MUSCULAR CONTROL) CONTINUUM • gross skills use large muscle movements • associated with : • strength • endurance • power • fine skills use small delicate muscle movements • associated with : • speed • accuracy • efficiency

9. Classification of Movement Skills CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL OPEN - CLOSED (ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE) CONTINUUM OPEN CLOSED soccer soccer tennis tennis soccer shot goal save pass stroke serve penalty putt OPEN - CLOSED (ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE) CONTINUUM • open skills • require perceptual monitoring (the performer perceives the information which stimulates the skill response) • occur in an unpredictable environment • the form of action is constantly being varied according to what is happening around the performer • have no clear beginning or end and are usually externally paced • closed skills • are prelearned and habitual • usually occur in the autonomous phase of learning • have no external requirements • have a clear beginning and end • occur in a predictable environment • the technical requirements of the skill conform to a specific model

10. Classification of Movement Skills CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL DISCRETE - SERIAL - CONTINUOUS (CONTINUITY) CONTINUUM DISCRETE SERIAL CONTINUOUS weight javelin high basketball running lifting throw jump dribble DISCRETE - SERIAL - CONTINUOUS (CONTINUITY) CONTINUUM • discrete skills • have a clear beginning and end • can be performed by themselves without linkage to other skills • the skill can be repeated but the performer starts again • serial skills • have a number of discrete skills • which are linked together into a performance consisting of several phases • continuous skills • cannot be split up into subroutines or easily distinguishable parts • but last a relatively long time • as long as the performer wishes

11. EXTERNALLY-PACED - SELF-PACED (PACING) CONTINUUM Classification of Movement Skills CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL EXTERNALLY-PACED SELF-PACED yachting tennis soccer diving tennis weight receiving serve game serve lifting EXTERNALLY-PACED - SELF-PACED (PACING) CONTINUUM • externally-paced skills • the speed and precision with which the skill is executed • are controlled by the environment / surroundings of the performer • opposing teams or individuals in a game • or the weather or wind conditions • self-paced skills • the rate of action is controlled by the performer

12. Classification of Movement Skills CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL SIMPLE - COMPLEX (DIFFICULTY) CONTINUUM SIMPLE COMPLEX sprinting throwing snooker gymnastic gymnastic tumble floor exercise SIMPLE - COMPLEX (DIFFICULTY) CONTINUUM • simple skills • are straightforward skills • with few subroutines • requiring little concentration and cognitive activity on the part of the performer • complex skills • are complicated skills • requiring a lot of attention / practice • the complexity of which can be perceived differently by different individuals • require a large number of (interlinked) subroutines, some of which may be habitual and learned • which affects the ease with which the performer performs the skill

13. Classification of Movement Skills CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL LOW - HIGH ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM LOW ORGANISATION HIGH ORGANISATION swimming cycling gymnastic move stroke pole vault LOW - HIGH ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM • skills with low organisation • are uncomplicated and have little organisational structure • subroutines tend to be discrete • and may be practised separately • skills with high organisation • have a complex organisational structure • subroutines are closely linked • and cannot be practised separately (the skill must be practised as a whole) • require far more attention and concentration to be performed successfully

14. Definitions and Characteristics of Abilities CHARACTERISTICS OF ABILITY ABILITY IS : THE FOUNDATION • of the learning process • to be successful, a performer must have certain abilities GENETICALLY DETERMINED • we are born with our abilities • abilities are innate • some people can pick up skills easily, others have difficulty ENDURING • people usually continue to display their ability for a long time PSYCHOMOTOR ABILITY • enables a performer to process information about how and when he / she moves PERCEPTUAL ABILITY • this is the ability to sense and interpret sensory inputs • examples from : • coordination, reaction time, agility, depth perception, arm / hand steadiness, speed, balance, manual dexterity, aiming

15. Definitions and Characteristics of Abilities ABILITY GROSS MOTOR ABILITY • to be able to move in a coordinated muscle movements • examples from : • extent / dynamic flexibility • explosive, static, trunk strength • gross body equilibrium / coordination • stamina • limb speed GENERAL ABILITY • does not exist ? SPECIFIC ABILITY • skills require different abilities specific to each skill GROUPS OF ABILITIES • a good sportsperson may have many different groups of abilities

16. Motor Skill Development SKILL DEVELOPMENT STAGES OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT / LEARNING COGNITIVE • skill learning goals are set and learning is begun • improvement is rapid, but movements are jerky and uncoordinated • demands high attention and concentration ASSOCIATIVE • specific motor programmes and subroutines are developed relevant to sport • consistency and coordination improve rapidly, timing and anticipation improve • gross error detection and correction is practised, detailed feedback is utilised • improvement is less rapid AUTONOMOUS • performance almost automatic, performed easily without stress • high proficiency with habitual performance and attention demands reduced • emphasis on tactics / strategy • errors detected and correctedwithout help

17. Motor Skill Development SKILL, ABILITY AND YOUR PPP WITHIN YOUR PPP YOU SHOULD : • analyse your sport as to its skill content • place skills in relevant continua • muscular involvement • environmental influence • continuity • pacing • difficulty • organisation • identify gross motor and psychomotor abilities which may be important within the skills within your chosen activity

18. Basic Models of Information Processing INFORMATION PROCESSING - BASIC MODEL

19. Basic Models of Information Processing INFORMATION PROCESSING - SCHMIDT’s MODEL STIMULUS • this is the input from the environment / surroundings STIMULUS IDENTIFICATION • refers to the reception and interpretation of sensory information RESPONSE SELECTION • is responsible for decision making RESPONSE PROGRAMMING • concerned with the sending of movement information via the nerves to the muscles OUTPUT • is movement resulting from the process

20. Basic Models of Information Processing INFORMATION PROCESSING - WELFORD’s MODEL

21. Basic Models of Information Processing INFORMATION PROCESSING - WELFORD’s MODEL DISPLAY • refers to the range of actions and things that are happening in the surrounding environment of the performer PERCEPTUAL MECHANISM • the part of the brain which perceives the surroundings DECISION MECHANISM • the part of the brain which makes decisions EFFECTOR MECHANISM • the part of the brain which carries out the decisions and sends messages to the limbs and parts of the body which act out the relevant skill INTRINSIC FEEDBACK • feedback as to what actually happens to the body via the proprioceptors which inform the brain about balance, muscle tensions, limb positions and angles EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK • feedback via the result (response) of the actions made • the results of which feed back as part of the display

22. Basic Models of Information Processing INFORMATION PROCESSING - WHITING’S MODEL

23. Basic Models of Information Processing INFORMATION PROCESSING - WHITING`S MODEL RECEPTOR SYSTEMS • refers to the sense organs which receive information PERCEPTUAL MECHANISM • the part of the brain which perceives the surroundings and gives them meaning TRANSLATORY MECHANISM • the part of the brain which makes decisions and sorts out and processes the few relevant bits of information • from the many inputs from the surroundings EFFECTOR MECHANISM • the part of the brain which carries out the decisions and sends messages to the limbs and parts of the body via the nervous system

24. Memory ATTENTION ATTENTION • relates to the amount of information we can cope with • since the amount of information we can attend to is limited • we have limited attentional capacity • the performer must therefore attend to only relevant information • and disregard irrelevant information • this is called selective attention • when some parts of a performance become automatic • the information relevant to those parts does not require attention • this gives the performer spare attentional capacity • which allows the performer to attend to new elements of a skill • such as tactics or anticipating the moves of an opponent • the coach will need to help the performer to make best use of spare attentional capacity • the coach will also need to direct the attention of the performer to enable him / her to concentrate and reduce the chance of attentional switching to irrelevant information or distractions

25. Memory LIMITED ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY THEORIES SINGLE CHANNEL THEORY • this theory says that a performer can only attend to one thing at a time • so information is processed sequentially • attentional switching would occur by transferring attention from one situation to another • so although attention would be shared between situations, only one would be attended to at a time (one then two then one then two …..) • therefore this can only be done if each situation requires small attentional capacity

26. Memory LIMITED ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY THEORIES MULTIPLE CHANNEL THEORY • this theory says that so long as incoming information arrives along different channels • then the performer can attend to more than one task at a time • an advanced performer will need to attend to many different bits of information at a time • but as long as each item does not require much effort (which takes up attentional capacity) then this is possible • also most advanced players will process some information automatically which allows attentional capacity for other inputs

27. Memory PERCEPTION AND SELECTIVE ATTENTION PERCEPTION • perception is stimulus identification • as information is received from the environment, the performer needs to make sense of it • to interpret it and identify the elements which are relevant and important • consists of three elements : • detection • comparison • recognition SELECTIVE ATTENTION • the process of sorting out relevant bits of information from the many which are received • attention passes the information to the short-term memory which gives time for conscious analysis • a good performer can focus totally on an important aspect of his / her skill • which can exclude other elements which may also be desirable • sometimes a performer may desire to concentrate on several different things at once

28. Memory MEMORY SYSTEMS

29. Memory BASIC MODEL OF THE MEMORY PROCESS SENSORY INPUT • refers to the information received from the surroundings SHORT-TERM SENSORY STORAGE • the area of the brain which receives information and holds it for a short time (less than 1 second) prior to processing • information deemed unimportant is lost and forgotten and replaced by new information SELECTIVE ATTENTION • the process of sorting out relevant bits of information from the many which are received SHORT-TERM MEMORY • the part of the brain which keeps information for a short period (20 - 30 seconds) after it has been deemed worthy of attention • the STM can carry between 5 and 9 separate items of information • can be improved by chunking • the information can be used for problem solving • or passed on to the long term memory for permanent storage

30. Memory BASIC MODEL OF THE MEMORY PROCESS LONG-TERM MEMORY • the part of the brain which retains information for long periods of time - up to the lifetime of the performer • very well learned information is stored • LTM is limitless and not forgotten • but may require a code for the information to be recalled PROCEDURAL MEMORY • this is memory of how to do something, which serves as a blueprint to enable you to repeat a movement SEMANTIC MEMORY • knowledge memory of facts and concepts EPISODIC MEMORY • memory of important occasions in your past life DECISION MAKING • the process by which desired outcomes are chosen FEEDBACK • the process of sending information back to the performer via the results of a movement or the position of the performer’s body

31. Memory IMPROVING RETENTION

32. Memory IMPROVING INFORMATION RETENTION KNOWING HOW • educate the performer about the details of a skill • explain what to do and how to do it BREVITY • be brief • do not overload the short-term memory which can only hold small amounts of data CLARITY • keep advice / instruction simple and clear (KISS - keep it simple stupid) • carefully separate similar skills to enable the performer to distinguish between them CHUNKING • more information can be held in STM if information is lumped together / chunked ORGANISATION • organise the process of learning to ensure the information is meaningful ASSOCIATION • link new information with old already learnt information PRACTICE • practice makes perfect • repetition of any information or skill will enable it to be remembered

33. Reaction Time REACTION TIME REACTION TIME (RT) • time between the onset of a stimulus and the start of the response • this is an inherent ability or trait • the stimulus could be : • kinaesthesia • hearing • touch • vision • pain • smell • from this list, the fastest reaction times occur to stimuli at the top of the list, the slowest to those at the bottom of the list MOVEMENT TIME • time it takes to complete the onset of a movement RESPONSE TIME • time it takes to process information and then to make a response RESPONSE TIME = REACTION TIME + MOVEMENT TIME

34. Reaction Time REACTION TIME SIMPLE REACTION TIME • is relevant to a single stimulus and a single possible response CHOICE REACTION TIME • several stimuli are given but only one must be selected for response • the more choices a person has, the more information needs processing, and the longer it takes to process the information • the slower the reaction time • this is Hick’s Law - see graph below

35. Reaction Time PSYCHOLOGICAL REFRACTORY PERIOD PSYCHOLOGICAL REFRACTORY PERIOD (PRP) • presentation of a second stimulus • will slow down the processing of information • causing a time lag (this is the PRP) between the relevant stimulus and an appropriate response • example : selling a dummy in Rugby EXAMPLE • S1 (1st stimulus) would be the dummy • S2 (2nd stimulus) would be the definite move • if the dummy (S1) had been the only stimulus then the reaction would have been at time R1 • in the meantime, S2 has happened, but the performer cannot begin his / her response to this until the full reaction R1 has been processed by the brain • so there is therefore a period of time (the PRP) after S2 but before the time break to R2 can begin • a person who can do a multiple dummy / shimmy (Mat Dawson / Jason Robinson) can leave opposition with no time to react and hence miss a tackle

36. Reaction Time FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION TIME FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION TIME • age • the older we get, the slower our reaction times • gender • males have quicker reaction times than females • but reaction times reduce less with age for females • increase in stimulus intensity will improve reaction time • a louder bang will initiate the go more quickly than a less loud bang • tall people will have slower reactions than short people because of the greater distance the information has to travel from the performer’s brain to the active muscles • short sprinters tend to win 60m races • arousal levels affect reaction times which are best when the performer is alert but not over aroused • the performer must attend to the most important cues (which act as a stimulus) • factors like body language / position might give a cue which enables the performer to anticipate a stimulus • anticipation of an opponents play by identifying favourite strokes or positions, particularly if the play involves an attempted dummy or fake

37. Reaction Time THE ROLE OF ANTICIPATION ANTICIPATION • the ability to predict future events from early signals or past events • reaction time can be speeded up if the performer learns to anticipate certain actions • good performers start running motor programmes before the stimulus is fully recognised • they anticipate the strength, speed and direction of a stimulus • this would enable a performer to partially eliminate the PRP (psychological refractory period) • however, opponents will also be trying to anticipate • opponents reaction times can be increased by increasing the number of choices of stimulus they have • increasing the number of fakes or dummies (Dawson / Robinson)

38. Reaction Time IMPROVING RESPONSE TIMES DETECTING THE CUE • sort out the stimulus (starter’s gun) from the background (spectator noise) DETECTING RELEVANT CUES • pick out relevant stimulus from other possible ones - choice reaction time reduced by eliminating alternative choices DECISION MAKING • work on set pieces in open skill situations so that an ‘automatic’ complex response can be made to a simple open stimulus CHANGE IN ATTENTIONAL FOCUS • practice switch of concentration quickly from one situation (opponents in defence) to another (field of play in attack) CONTROLLING ANXIETY • anxiety would increase response times - reduce by calming strategies CREATING OPTIMUM MOTIVATION • psyching up WARM-UP • ensure that sense organs and nervous system are in optimum state to transmit information and muscles to act on it

39. Feedback FEEDBACK FEEDBACK • information which is used during and after an action or movement THE IMPORTANCE OF FEEDBACK • visual feedback for the beginner helps the performer to gain insight into a performance and its quality • demonstration of faults and corrections as feedback should be correct, since the performer will attempt to imitate the demonstration • verbal feedback should be restricted during the early stages of learning since too much information can confuse the performer • during the later stages of learning, the performer should have extra attentional capacity which should enable greater detail to be communicated • asking questions about the feelings involved in a performance is a form of feedback • the importance of feedback is high to the coach (or teacher) teaching a performer skills since knowledge of performance is a way of improving skill levels

40. Feedback FEEDBACK TYPES OF FEEDBACK INTRINSIC FEEDBACK • this is sensory information • from the performer’s own sensory system • which normally occurs when individuals produce movement • intrinsic feedback received from outside the body is known as exteroceptive feedback • sight - the view of other competitors in a game • hearing - the sounds of crowd • smell - of other competitors! • intrinsic feedback from within the body is known as proprioceptive feedback • proprioception - the position and angles of limbs and tension in muscles

41. Feedback FEEDBACK TYPES OF FEEDBACK EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK • KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE • information about a performance (its quality / rhythm / aesthetics) • from a coach • from video • from the press / TV • KNOWLEGDE OF RESULTS • information about the outcome of a performance • success or failure • distance / height / time • this information can be from a number of sources • coach • video • press / TV

42. Feedback FUNCTIONS OF EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK MOTIVATIONAL • success is motivational • failure can act as a spur to motivation REINFORCING • behaviour that is rewarded tends to be repeated • so praise for a correct performance will act as positive reinforcement • which will influence the performer to desire to repeat the correct performance INFORMATIONAL • feedback provides information about errors hence the performer will be able to correct errors FEEDBACK DEPENDENCY • some performers can become dependent on feedback • example : from a coach or significant other about the quality of performance or technical competence • if this feedback is withdrawn or cannot be given then performance can deteriorate • as in a field event athlete in a major games who cannot function without feedback from a coach about his / her technique • and who therefore will fail

43. Feedback FEEDBACK TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONCURRENT FEEDBACK • occurs during a performance • has the aim of improving skills or techniques while a performer is in action TERMINAL FEEDBACK • occurs after a performance has finished • is important because it strengthens the schema in learning POSITIVE FEEDBACK • is feedback which gives information aimed at a constructive development of performance • positive reinforcement, praise and encouragement about good performances • the knowledge from poor performances which gives insight about errors and their possible correction NEGATIVE FEEDBACK • is information which could depress performance • negative reinforcement, negative criticism about poor performances

44. Information Processing INFORMATION PROCESSING AND YOUR PPP WITHIN YOUR PPP YOU SHOULD : • apply one information processing model to your chosen activity

45. Motor and Executive Programmes MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES MOTOR PROGRAMME • defined as a set of movements stored as a whole in the long-term memory • contains all the information required to make a movement : • which muscles to use • the order in which muscles are used • the phasing and degree of contraction of muscles EXECUTIVE PROGRAMME • enables a skill to be performed • can be made up of a large number of subroutines • must be adaptable so that it can be altered when the environment / surroundings change SUBROUTINES • component parts of an executive programme • structured in layers • some subroutines can be in turn broken down into further subroutines which form smaller parts of a skill • each subroutine is a short fixed sequence • which when fully learned can be performed automatically • without conscious control

46. Motor and Executive Programmes MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES STRUCTURE OF EXECUTIVE PROGRAMME FOR A DISCUS THROW

47. Motor and Executive Programmes MOTOR AND EXECUTIVE PROGRAMMES STRUCTURE OF EXECUTIVE PROGRAMME FOR A TENNIS SERVE

48. Motor Control MOTOR CONTROL OPEN LOOP CONTROL • this applies to executive programmes whose subroutines are simple and well-learned • and are automatic (no conscious thought is necessary) • they are then completed rapidly without time for feedback • and apply to closed and self-paced skills • examples : • tennis serve • discus throw

49. Motor Control MOTOR CONTROL CLOSED LOOP CONTROL • this applies to ongoing movements • in which only part of the information necessary to complete a movement is sent to effector organs (neuromuscular system) • the remaining information is sent following feedback via kinaesthesis • information about balance and body position can be used to change these factors during a movement • examples : • riding a bike • performing a gymnastic move • performing a complex dive

50. Motor Control SCHEMA (SCHMIDT’s THEORY) SCHEMA THEORY • explains how sports performers can undertake so many actions with very little conscious control • the long-term memory isn’t big enough to store all the motor programmes required under the open and closed loop theories • schema theory says that generalised motor programmes exist which can be modified by taking in information as a skill is performed • the LTM therefore has to store far fewer motor programmes • since any new movement can be performed by running a schema which closely matches the needs of the new movement • the bigger the schema the more efficient the movement • large amounts of varied practice are needed to improve a schema • feedback is very important to correct and update a schema