Enhancing Memory: Tips and Techniques

1. Memory UNIT 3 2011

2. Facts about Memory • Learning a musical instrument can improve your memory • Sleep improves memory • A good diet and exercise can help your memory • Dieting can affect your memory • Stress can make you forgetful • Caffeine can improve your memory • We tend to keep good memories and filter out bad ones

3. What is Memory? • It is an active information – processing system that - receives - stores - organises - alters - recovers information • It is a cognitive process which refers to - thinking, knowing or manipulating information

4. It involves 3 processes: • Encoding • Storage • Retrieval encoding - converting information into a usable form (i.e. meaningfully) for storage in memory storage - retention of information over time retrieval - locating & recovering stored information Remember E,S,R

5. ENCODING - Our senses take in information from the external environment • Encoding refers to the active process of converting incoming sensory information into a form that can be stored and represented in the memory system • there are 3 different types of encoding: Acoustic Visual Semantic

6. Types of encoding…………. Acoustic Representing a stimulus according to the sound of its name Eg see a dog – encode this information by verbally or silently saying dog Visual Representing a stimulus as an image Eg see a dog – encode the broad features of the image it casts on your retinas Semantic Representing a stimulus according to its meaning Eg see a dog – associate it with information such as animal, bulldog, friendly (previously stored in your long – term memory

7. STORAGE - in human working memory – storage is limited can be compared to RAM (random access memory) of a computer. • humans can store large amounts of information in long – term memory. RETRIEVAL • locating and recovering information from memory • humans retrieve information via prompts or cues • computers perform retrieval in a similar way

8. MEASURES OF RETENTION Are methods of testing or assessing the amount of information retained (stored) in memory There are 3 main types : RECALL RECOGNITION RELEARNING RECALL Is a measure of retention that requires the person to recover stored Information using a minimal amount of cues to assist retrieval. • Recall is the least sensitive measure of retention. Recall may be of various types: FREE SERIAL CUED

9. Wheelbarrow Horse Window Golf Keys Notebook Diamond Spoon Candle Pillow Lightning Pocket Shoes Shelf Monkey

10. FREE Wheelbarrow Horse Window Golf Keys Notebook Diamond Spoon Candle Pillow Lightning Pocket Shoes Shelf Monkey Recall the list of words in any order

11. Truck Cup Tooth Photo Moth Glue Folder Father Cake Tablet Bus River Flag Mountain

12. SERIAL • Recall the information in the order it was presented Truck Cup Tooth Photo Moth Glue Folder Father Cake Tablet Bus River Flag Mountain

13. Path Raisin Yellow Raspberry Encyclopeadia Smile Rosemary Boil Container Ring Power Corner Roast Real Burnt Radish

14. CUED • recall the names of the items that begin with R Raisin Raspberry Rosemary Ring Roast Real Radish

15. MEASURES OF RETENTION………….. RECALL FREE RECALL: -Participants are required to retrieve as much information as they can in any order e.g. a list of grocery items. SERIAL RECALL: • Participants recall information in the order in which it was presented e.g. the names of cities on an itinerary for an overseas journey. CUED RECALL: • Participants recall information in any order – but with the cues (prompts) to assist the retrieval process. e.g. the surname is short and begins with “D”.

16. RECOGNITION -Is the identification of the correct information among a list of incorrect pieces of information e.g. Which Australian Prime Minister drowned at Portsea? 1. Chifley 2. Deakin 3. Holt 4. Menzies Answer: Holt • we can generally remember more accurately when using a recognition then when using recall because recognition provides more cues to assist retrieval. Eg. If you were asked to name students in your English class last year, what % of the class do you think you could recall? If you were given a list of 50 names & asked to identify (recognise) those who were in your English class last year–the no.of those who you recognised from your English class would be much higher

17. RECOGNITION RETRIEVAL CUES: Is any stimulus or word that is associated with a specific Memory that helps or enhances the retrieval of information. • It is easier to retrieve the correct information because it is shown among the incorrect information. • Recognition is superior and is a more sensitive measure than recall.

18. RELEARNING • refers to learning something over again which has been previously committed to memory. If the time taken to learn the material originally can be measured & compared With the time taken to relearn the same material, then a savings score can be calculated. Savings score = time for original learning - time for relearning time for original learning X 100 e.g. If 10 trials are required originally to fully learn material but only 6 trials are needed to fully relearn the material later on, the savings scores (amount of information retained) is 40% Savings score = 10 – 6 10 = 4 10 X 100 = 0.4 x 100 = 40% x 100

19. RELEARNING • relearning is the most sensitive measure of retention of the 3 types described Because: it demonstrates that there is some information in memory, even if we think there is none or very little Complete – Activity 1 p 122 (worksheet) CYU – 7.1 page 199 CYU - 7.2 page 202

20. 3 TYPES OF MEMORY SENSORY ( SM ) SHORT TERM ( STM) or Working Memory LONG – TERM MEMORY (LTM) • These 3 levels of memory: function simultaneously interact with each other are separate yet related systems

21. 3 TYPES OF MEMORY If we pay attention to It & rehearse it, it passes to…. Encoding & Storage Information SENSORY MEMORY ( SM ) SHORT TERM MEMORY (STM) LONG – TERM MEMORY (LTM) Retrieval Lost if not attended to Forgotten if not encoded or rehearsed Forgotten if: • interference • Retrieval failure • Motivated forgetting • Decay • New information passes from SM to STM if we pay attention to it • information may pass from STM to LTM if we rehearse it in a way that gives meaning & allows it to hook into existing information in LTM. • Information passes back from LTM to STM when we need it to think, plan or solve problems.

22. SENSORY MEMORY ( SM ) • is very brief storage of raw or unencoded information at receptor sites • relates directly to our sensory system • we have a sensory register for each sense, which holds information from a fraction of a second and several seconds. • the duration varies from one sense to another • this information in SM has not yet entered our awareness & may never do so TYPES OF SENSORY MEMORY registers: • ICONIC MEMORY ( visual) • ECHOIC MEMORY (auditory)

23. TYPES OF SENSORY MEMORY ICONIC MEMORY ( visual) - “ICON” greek work meaning image • lasts for 0.2 – 0.4 sec • stores visual images in their original sensory form • storage capacity: potentially unlimited, retains the last visual image ECHOIC MEMORY (auditory) • stores sounds in their original sensory form • lasts for 3 – 4 sec • storage capacity: potentially unlimited, retains the last few sounds • this longer time(3 – 4 sec) helps to explain why people who appear not to hear a question sometimes answer it just as the person is abandoning hope of ever getting a reply! This happens when the “listener” is doing another task e.g. reading a book or watching a TV show

24. - the sensory registers hold information long enough to decide whether or not to attend to it (ie process it further). - if we choose to attend to it then it is transferred to SHORT TERM ( STM) or Working Memory Learning tip: There are as many sensory registers for sensory memory as there are senses (5) though you will only need to know about the iconic & echoic sensory registers. Read : top of page 206 & do TIY 7.1 Focus on research page 207 CYU 7.3 p208

25. SHORT TERM (STM) or Working Memory • is also called working memory (like the RAM in a computer) • may be using information coming in from sensory memory (SM) or information being retrieved from the long – term memory (LTM) - quite often combines the two Information coming into STM may experience any of the 3 outcomes Retained Encoded & transferred Into LTM discarded

26. SHORT TERM ( STM) or Working Memory (1) Storage Capacity: is extremely limited compared to that of long – term memory. normally adults are able to store & process approximately 7 single bits (chunks/ pieces) of information in STM at one time. information in excess of this is disregarded or transferred to LTM. Storage Duration: retains information for up to about 20 sec if unattended; information is held indefinitely if continually attended to ( i.e. rehearsed). Read – p 210 Nelson

27. (2) Rehearsal : there are two types of rehearsal used by short term memory. Maintenance Elaborative Maintenance rehearsal: p 212 Repetition of a sound or image over & over, in a rote, mechanical way without adding new meaning to it. Keeps ( maintains) the information in STM for a longer period of time than it would otherwise remain. As long as we are not interrupted whilst rehearsing, we can keep Information in STM almost indefinitely. This rarely occurs because we are almost always distracted OR interrupted to turn our attention to something else. Maintenance rehearsal does little to encode or add meaning to the information.

28. SHORT TERM ( STM) or Working Memory Elaborativerehearsal: p212 The way we manipulate new information to make it more meaningful & integrate it with existing information in LTM. In other words we reorganise new & existing information in a meaningful way to aid storage & retrieval. (e.g. associating verbal information with visual images) Self referencing is a way we can elaborate information. This Involves mentally involving yourself in an example or Situation connected with the material being learned.

29. Elaborativerehearsal: Advantage of elaboration - provides so much additional meaning, that the learner’s understanding is enhanced. CYU 7.4 & 7.5 TIY 7.2 Learning Tip Remember that elaborative rehearsal relates to LTM (we add meaning or significance to memories to be stored permanently) & maintenance rehearsal relates to STM (it helps us to maintain the material here for longer than the normal 18 – 20 sec).

30. SHORT TERM ( STM) or Working Memory (3) Chunking Is the process of grouping or combining smaller bits of information that can be remembered as larger more meaningful units, i.e. “chunks”. This increases the amount of information (i.e. capacity) that can be held in STM at one time. Example: We have very little difficulty memorising numbers with more than 7 digits if we chunk some of the digits together. We tend to do this with area codes. We may know a number of people in the 02 area code. We think of 02 as a chunk & we may then group the rest of the number into 2 or three chunks of numbers.

31. Chunking cont’ • E.g: combining the digits 3,7,8 into a single number 378 • reorganising and combining the letters H C E V I E L into the single word VEHICLE • reorganising & combining the words CAT, MAT, SAT, FAT, THE, BROWN, ON into a sentence THE FAT CAT SAT ON THE BROWN MAT Complete TIY 7.3 Read a closer look p 217 TIY 7.4 & CYU 7.6

32. SHORT TERM (STM) or Working Memory • Psychologists suggest that STM is a very active memory area composed of a variety of specialised multiple memory systems that have evolved for different tasks. • The term “working memory” is used because it indicates that we are actively doing something with the information. Working Memory -The subsystem of STM that is involved in processing information we need for dealing with the immediate moment. • It holds & processes current information with past • Information held in LTM. • It is a limited capacity workspace

33. Working memory is seen as an area that holds all the information needed for cognitive activities like Thinking Planning Analysis • When we perform mental arithmetic e.g. (56 + 48) we are using working memory • When we dial a telephone number we are using working memory • When we engage in verbal reasoning or read we are using working memory

34. Alan Baddeley (1986) developed the most complete description of working memory. He suggests that the working memory is a three - part system that temporarily holds & manipulates information as we perform cognitive tasks. Baddeley’s 3 component (“sub – systems”) structure of WM • PHONOLOGICAL LOOP • VISUOSPATIAL SKETCHPAD • CENTRAL EXECUTIVE

35. PHONOLOGICAL LOOP Otherwise known as (verbal Working Memory) OR Articulatory Loop is an area of working memory that stores a limited number of sounds received from The echoic memory register and / or the LTM for up to 2 seconds Unless the material is further rehearsed. • See diagram page 219 – Nelson

36. The PHONOLOGICAL LOOP is composed of 2 subsystems: • Articulatory Control System This is a sub vocal rehearsal mechanism (the inner voice) with a time based capacity of up to 2 sec. It holds sounds that originate from the external environment by subvocalising (silently repeating) material we want to maintain or are preparing to say. • Phonological Store (the inner ear) with a time based capacity of approximately 1.5 – 2 sec. It holds representations of sounds which fade unless they are rehearsed through silent repetition.

37. VISUO – SPATIAL SKETCHPAD - Otherwise known as (visual Working Memory) that stores visual (images) and spatial information (objects location in space) for a limited period of time. • this allows us to rehearse incoming & outgoing information & to manipulate and process visual images. • EXAMPLE: Close your eyes and try to remember what objects are presently in the Room. You are using your visuo – sketchpad which uses a visual code That inputs & represents information in the form of visual features such as SIZE, SHAPE & COLOUR.

38. VISUO – SPATIAL SKETCHPAD CON’T …… • it has a limited capacity but can use information from any of the senses • It can store information for approx 18 – 20 sec without rehearsal. • If too much information is supplied to the visuo – spatial sketchpad and it becomes overloaded, we cannot represent items accurately enough for them to be recovered later. • CENTRAL EXECUTIVE • most important aspect of working memory • It monitors, coordinates, integrates information from the phonological loop & visual spatial sketchpad and long – term memory. • it decides which information needs attention & what needs to be ignored. Read evidence in support of WM……………..page 220

39. LONG – TERM MEMORY (LTM) Meaningful information that has been attended to & that has undergone further processing in STM is transferred to a third memory system - LTM. Capacity: Virtually unlimited Duration: Up to a lifetime – relatively permanent Processing: Information is organised according to meaning & is associatively linked Forming a LTM is called consolidation

40. Consolidation theory • Appears to be a period of time in the transfer of information from short – term memory into long – term memory when some consolidation of the information is necessary for a permanent memory to be retained. • Suggests that information can be altered or completely lost during this consolidation phase. • the theory suggests that there is a physical change to brain cells during the period of consolidation, and that the information is not completely consolidated until the change to the brain cells is complete. • it takes approx 30 minutes for a new memory to be transferred from STM to permanent storage in LTM.

41. Consolidation theory…..-Explains why people may lose a recent part of their memory following a head injury, or after ECT (electroconvulsive therapy). That is the lost information had not yet been consolidated. • Read top of page 222 (rat & electric shock experiment). • FOR page 223 – 224. • TIY 7.5 p225

42. LONG – TERM MEMORY (LTM) • stores all the information which we do not need right now. This information is not immediately active, and needs to be retrieved back into our short – term memory when we need to use it. • as new LTMs are formed, older memories are often changed, lost or revised. • LTM can be categorised into 4 types of memories Procedural memory Declarative memory Episodic Memory Semantic Memory Remember …PEDS

43. Procedural memory • is learned actions & skills about how to perform a task. e.g. walk, talk or juggle. • includes conditioned responses & actions like those involved in typing or solving a puzzle. - they tend to occur after practice. • procedural memories are quite resistant to forgetting Ie: we don’t forget how to swim or ride a bike. • they are also quite resistant to brain damage that might wipe out other forms of memory. -REMEMBER: procedures involve the way to do things- actions

44. Declarative memory • refers to the memories of events & facts which can be brought consciously to mind & usually be communicated to others. e.g. that the Eiffel Tower is in Paris etc… • it can be divided into TWO TYPES Episodic Memory Semantic Memory

45. Episodic Memory (time & place) • are memories or events or episodes. Examples of these may include: • your first day at school • Most embarrassing moment • they are of a personal nature (i.e. they are part of your life experience). - very vivid episodic memories are called flashbulb memories read FOR p 228 • Semantic Memory ( meaning) • are memories of facts (or knowledge). Examples of semantic memories might include knowing that Wellington is the capital of New Zealand Or 12 X 9 = 108 FOR p 229

46. Complete all learning activities for Memory chapter Complete chapter notes for forgetting