Chapter Six

1. Chapter Six The Roman Empire p. 192-223

2. From Republic to Empire • After the assassination of Julius Caesar, three men competed for his power. • Octavian (Augustus) - Caesar's adopted son • Marc Antony • Lepidus • Also, Sextus, Pompey, the son of Pompey the Great, was trying to gain power

3. From Republic to Empire Part II • Octavian defeated Antony in a battle and then had himself appointed as consul. He then formed the Second Triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus to aveng the murder of Caesar. • In 40 BCE, the Triumvirate met in Brundisium to divide the Roman world amongst themselves. • Octavian controlled the east • Antony controlled the west • Lepidus controlled Africa

4. From Republic To Empire Part III • Also, Antony married Octavia, Octavian's sister, to seal the pact. • Lepidus left the Triumvirate to become Pontifex Maximus.

5. Antony and Cleopatra • In 36 BCE, Marcus Agrippa defeated Sexutus Pompey in a naval battle. • In the same year, Antony met and married Cleopatra VII, the Queen of Egypt • Antony and Cleopatra married for love, not political power • By marrying Cleopatra, Antony rejected Octavia and Octavian. • Octavia never recognized the divorce from Antony.

6. Antony and Cleopatra Part II • Cleopatra had previously been involved with Julius Caesar and had his son -- Ptolemy Caesar (Caesarion). • Antony and Cleopatra had three children together and gave all of them their own kingdoms to rule.

7. Antony and Cleopatra Part III • Antony and Cleopatra's idyllic life together ended on 23 September 31 BCE when Octavian and Agrippa defeated them at the Battle of Actium. • In 30 BCE, Antony and Cleopatra both committed suicide.

8. Antony and Cleopatra Part IV • Because of his dynastic threat, Caesarion was immediately killed. • Cleopatra's three other children were sent to live with Octavia, who also looked after Antony's children from a previous marriage, as well as her children from a previous marriage and her marriage with Antony.

9. The Age of Augustus • In January 27 BCE, Octavian formally returned the state to the Senate and the People. • For this act, he was given the name "Augustus" (dignified or opposing) • Augustus personally kept control of all the territories with large armies. • Provinces with small armies were given back to the Senate. • Egypt was ruled as Augustus' private kingdom.

10. The Age of Augustus Part II • In 23 BCE, Augustus became Tribune of the People and in 12 BCE, he became Pontifex Maximus, and thus had all the decision making power in Rome. • Augustus had given birth to the Roman Empire with him as the first Roman Emperor.

11. The Principate • Augustus tried very hard through his reign not to upset anyone. • He was neither arrogant nor decadent, and ruled Rome skillfully as primus inter pares (first among equals) - Principate. • Augustus championed the cause of peace, and the benefits of this peace were told in the fine arts and literature of the time. • Augustus and his family were personally responsible for rebuilding 82 temples and public places, including the forum Romanum, and they built the new forum.

12. The Principate Part II • August revamped the administration of the Roman Empire • Made the career of official in provincial government of in the army desirable • Created a professional civil service • Created the vigiles, a combination police force and fire fighting brigade • Augustus also linked the worship with Roma with the worship of himself, sometimes as New Zeus

13. The Principate Part III • Augustus fostered the spread of "Romanity" and really did find a city of bricks and left it one of marble. • Two factors contributed to the success of the Principate • People's desire for peace after years of civil war • Augustus lived a long time, and outlived many potential heirs

14. The Administration of the Provinces • The word provincia referred to an area of responsibility in which a magistrate had power (imperium) • Provinciacame to applied to a geographical area for which magistrates were responsible • Provincial governor was usually an ex-consul or ex-praetor and he commanded the occupying army, led the bureaucracy of financial and other assistants, for whom taxation was a very important function

15. The Arts in the Age of Augustus • Augustus used art as a tool for propaganda and used art and architecture throughout the Empire to show the power and legitimacy of the emperor • During the Principate, visual arts – architecture, wall painting, mosaics, and sculpture – all flourished

16. The Arts Part II • Augustus completed the Forum Romanum of Julius Caesar and built the Forum of Augustus • Built the Alter of Augustan Peace on his wife Livia’s birthday in 9 BCE • Showed scenes that told viewers he could trace his family back to the very beginning of Rome

17. The Arts Part III • Wall painting developed • Moved from painting on plaster to imitate masonry to representing scenes • Mosaics began as monochromatic compositions, but then were made of thousands of tiny cubes of glass, usually with an intricate geometric border around a scene

18. The Arts Part IV • Sculpture continued to favour the Greek classical style • Relief sculpture developed a distinct Roman style, especially on triumphal arches, columns, and monuments

19. Literature • Virgil (70-19 BCE) gave Rome its founding epic – The Aeneid • Describes how the hero Aeneas escaped after the Trojan War and arrived in Italy • All members of the family of Julius Caesar are said to be descended from Aeneas • Romulus and Remus also direct descendants

20. Literature Part II • Horace (65-8 BCE) applauded the benefits of peace, Augustan rule, and Roman supremacy • wrote the Odes • Ovid (43 BCE-19 CE) was a poet and wrote a well-crafted parody called The Art of Love • Ovid was banished from Rome for unspecified crimes (probably involving Augustus’ daughter) • Wrote the Metamorphoses

21. Literature Part III • Tacitus and Suetonius wrote about the early emperors. • Tacitus wrote Histories and Annals from a hostile senatorial viewpoint. • Suetonius was Hadrian's one-time secretary, and he wrote Lives of the Twelve Caesars. • Pliny the Elder(23-79 CE) wrote a 37 volume Natural History. • He died trying to help people fleeing from Mt. Vesuvius' eruption. • His adopted son, Pliny the Younger, (61-112 CE) recorded his death.

22. The Successors of Augustus • Tiberius (AD 14 - 37) was Augustus' stepson and his reign was increasingly hard. • He ended his reign on the island of Capri.

23. The Successors of Augustus Part II • Caligula (AD 37 - 41), Augustus' grandson, took his name from the little boots he wore when in his father's army camp as a tiny infant. • Cruelty and debauchery marked his reign. • Because he didn't respect the Senate, he made his favorite horse, Incitatus, a senator. • He had many affairs with married women and his sisters. • The Praetorian Guard (his bodyguards) murdered him

24. The Successors of Augustus Part III • Claudius (AD 41 - 54) was Augustus' nephew and had long been considered to be a complete embarrassment to his family because he had a stutter and a limp. • He was, however, a very good emperor. • Under him, Britain became a lasting part of the Roman Empire.

25. The Successors Part IV • Claudius' nephew, Nero (AD 54 - 68) had been groomed for the throne by his mother, whom he eventually had murdered. • He became very unpopular, and many people blamed him for the great fire in Rome. • He was also known for his cruelty towards Christians. • He burned them alive and threw them to the lions. • Nero was murdered. • After Nero, there were three emperors in one year, Galba, Otho, and Vitelius..

26. The Successors Part V • Vespasian (AD 69 - 79) was a wise ruler and was succeeded by his son, Titus (AD 79 - 81), who was known for his generosity. • Titus' brother, Domitian (AD 81 - 96) was an autocratic tyrant best known for his persecution of Christian and Jews. • His wife helped plot his assassination with his successor Nerva (AD 96 - 98).

27. The Successors Part VI • Trajan (AD 98 - 117) was born in Spain and had spent many years as a soldier and administrator. • Trajan was responsible for making Rome more beautiful. • He also expanded the borders of the empire in every direction. • He is generally thought of as an able administrator.

28. The Successors Part VII • Hadrian (AD 117 - 138) was Trajan's adopted son and is generally considered a truly great Roman emperor. • He too was born in Spain and had been a soldier and administrator. • He consolidated Roman rule through his travels around the Empire. • He is probably best known for building Hadrian's Wall in northern England to prevent the Picts from invading England. • Hadrian was also responsible for rebuilding the Pantheon.

29. Hadrian’s Masterpiece: The Pantheon

30. Hadrian’s Masterpiece: The Pantheon • The Pantheon is a circular temple, built in 25 - 33 BC by Agrippa, and totally rebuilt in about AD 126 - 128. • It is one of the most architecturally influential buildings in the western world. • Its impressive dome was the inspiration for the Capitol building in Washington, DC.

31. The Pantheon Part II • A person passes though huge antique bronze doors to enter into a space 43.2 m wide and tall. • The ceiling has sunken panels. • A circular opening 8.3 m across illuminates the Pantheon. • The Pantheon has survived because it was converted into a church in the seventh century.

32. Buildings and Public Works in the Empire • To be classified as a civilization, the majority of the society must speak the same language, be subject to the same laws and principles of government, and worship the same gods. • Also, a society should be centred in a city or urban development

33. Thermae (Baths) • During Roman times, bathing was a social activity. • Large public bathhouses were built for relaxation by the rich and the poor.

34. Thermae Part II • Bathhouses were generally divided into men's and women's sections. • For a small fee, a patron could enter a change room and strip naked. • After that, the person could enter the frigidarium to take a cold plunge. • Then the person would proceed to the tepidarium before entering the caldarium (hot room). • A patron could also go the laconicum (sweat room) or the palestra(exercise room). • Some baths also had shops. • Patrons could also mingle with the opposite sex in the piscina(swimming pool) or exercise in the gymnasium. • The baths were heated from below by a fire called a hypocaust

35. Aqueducts and Water Supply

36. Aqueducts and Water Supply • The Romans were the greatest inventors of technology until the Industrial Revolution. • Aqueducts provided clean water to Roman settlements all over the Roman Empire from Rome to Britain. • A water source was located on a hillside where the flow was fairly constant and its height was such that the water could be fed some distance by gravity alone.

37. Aqueducts Part II • First, a source was normally pooled into a settling tank, where the flow of water could be regulated at the intake. • Second, a channel lined with water proof mortar and covered to prevent contamination or a sudden increase due to a rain storm was directed from the source to the outlet around the contours of a hill. • Romans had running water in their homes.

38. Theatres • The first stone theatre in Rome was built in 55 BCE by Pompey the Great • A typical theatre was semicircular with an orchestra in the front and a backdrop. • Behind the backdrop would be changing rooms and property storage.

39. Amphitheatres • The first amphitheatre was built in 29 BCE, and it was devoted to public entertainment. • The Colosseum in Rome had 80 entrances, four seating areas, and could hold 50 000 spectators. • Gladiator fighting and convicted criminals were killed in the arena.

40. Gladiators • Pairs of gladiators fought each other for public amusement. • There were formal rules for this fight to the death. • The crowd of spectators decided if the gladiators lived or died.

41. Circus • A circus was a long race-track with starting gates at one end, a central wall around which chariots raced, and turning-posts at either end of the wall. • Chariot racing was popular because people of either sex could sit together. • Chariot racers were divided into four teams - Greens, Whites, Blues, and Reds. • Charioteers also had to perform tricks while racing.

42. Circus Part II • The Circus Maximus at Rome was 6 by 2 football fields and could hold 200 000 spectators.

43. The Private House: Pompeii and Herculaneum • The best preserved private Roman houses are in Pompeii • On 24 August 79 CE, Vesuvius erupted • Herculaneum was covered by mud, but Vesuvius was covered by volcanic ash • Pompeii was rediscovered in 1748 but excavations began in 1861

44. The Private House Part II • Vestibulum – long, deep entrance • Atrium – a rectangular area surrounded by a sloping roof along the sides and open to the sky in the centre • Usually small rooms on the sides of the atrium – bedrooms (cubicula) • End of the atrium was a reception area (tablinum) • Garden was open to the elements

45. The Private House Part III • The poor and ordinary people lived in apartments called insula • Could be up to 5 storeys high • No private bathroom and very little light at night • Constant danger of fire because structure made of wood • Running water only on the first floor

46. Beliefs • By the middle of the second century CE, the Roman Empire had reached its greatest expanse • There were many different religions and beliefs in the empire

47. The Cult of Isis • This religion based on the worshipping of the Egyptian goddess, Isis was very popular, especially in Pompeii and Rome. • Her worship was widespread, but it was overwhelmed after the official introduction of Christianity as the official religion of the Empire.

48. Mithraism • The worship of the Iranian deity, Mithras, was especially popular with soldiers and merchants in the fourth century. • There was a belief in personal immortality, and while many ceremonies were similar with Christianity, they did believe in ritual sacrifice

49. Christianity • Christianity has its basis in Judaism. • Judaism's holy book - the Torah - was written under supervision of Yahweh - God. • The basic law - Ten Commandments - are believed to be have been written on two stone tablets by God and given to Moses.

50. Christianity Part II • Around 30 CE, Jesus Christ began to teach that the prophecies of the Torah were to be fulfilled now. • Jesus' followers believed him to be the Son of God - the Messiah - and that the Kingdom of God was happening then. • Jesus performed many miracles and also forgave sins. • Jesus would forgive your sins if you accepted him as God's sole agent.