AS Level – Week 12 &13 Theory

1. AS Level – Week 12 &13 Theory Module 1 Theories of Learning

2. Theories of Learning If you can identify the best method to develop a skill, the learning time can be reduced and the result transferred to a competitive situation. There are 3 theories that need to be understood-: • Conditioning theory • Cognitive theory / insight learning • Observational learning.

3. Conditioning Theories of Learning There are 4 main styles of conditioning theory. • Connectionist or associationist theories. They are based on the ‘behaviourist’ approach which basic notion involves the performer developing a specific link with a certain cue, this is known as the ‘stimulus - response bond’ or ‘S - R bond’. The response is stored in the long term memory and when the specific stimulus is detected, the appropriate movement is triggered. A certain stimulus offers a particular response. Practical example-: a cricket batsman will attempt to play a certain type of shot each time the bowler pitches the ball in a particular area. If the response is ineffective the S - R bond is weakened. Performer being told which shot to play.

4. Operant Conditioning (Skinner 1974) Operant conditioning involves a gradual process of elimination which will develop the appropriate response with the correct use of reinforcement. In order for this to occur, the learner may experience either reinforcement or punishment. Reinforcement strengthens the S - R bond while punishment weakens it. (child learning the piano, plays wrong note gets whack on hand) Reinforcement can take two forms; positive and negative. Positive reinforcement - the use of a stimulus to create feelings of satisfaction to encourage the repetition of the action, e.g praise from the coach, applause, kinaesthetic feedback or any other type of reward. Negative reinforcement - this involves the withdrawal of an unpleasant stimulus when the desired response occurs, e.g the coach will stop shouting at the team or player.

5. Punishment may also be used effectively to reduce the likelihood of the reactions being repeated. This can include being dropped or being penalized for foul play. However punishment can cause resentment and have an adverse effect. Use carefully. Photocopy of Practical Application Numerous sports skills are developed using this method. Whilst their use does facilitate the learning and refining of skills, a disadvantage may be the lack of understanding as to why the skill is being executed in a particular manner. As a result when the performer enters a competitive situation, they may not be able to adapt their ‘conditioned’ skill to a new environment. Top tip-: Do not confuse negative reinforcement with negative feedback or punishment. Negative reinforcement would be to stop reminding the performer to do something. Where as negative feedback would be the coach criticizing the performer.

6. Thorndike’s Laws of Learning In order to make the strengthening of the S-R bond (stimulus response) more effective, Thorndike suggested 3 laws. 1. Law of exercise - the performer must practice the task regularly in favourable conditions e.g. when reinforcement is used 2. Law of effect - the performer is more likely to repeat the task if their behaviour is followed by experiences of satisfaction e.g. positive reinforcement. 3. Law or readiness - the performer is physically and mentally able to complete the task e.g. has the appropriate motivation and physiological development.

7. Drive reduction Theory (Hull) • Hull suggested that learning will occur due to the performer’s desire to complete the task and only by achieving their ‘drive’ will they be satisfied. • Too much repetition of a skill during the learning phase may actually demotivate the performer and cause ‘inhibition’. • Hull proposed that an effective way to strengthen the S-R bond is to ensure the ‘drive or motivation of the performer is always maintained. This will involve the teacher/coach setting new challenging goals allowing continued development to occur.

8. Practical Application A coach will initially set a novice tennis player the target of learning to play a basic forehand shot. When this has been mastered, a new goal has to be set to maintain the performer’s interest and strengthen the S-R bond, such as the forehand shot. The process continues once this skill has been developed. Photocopy of Theory A weakness of conditioning theories is that the performer may not fully understand the relationship between the stimulus and response as they have only be concerned with the outcome of their action. Therefore their performance may be hindered, as they may be unable to modify their actions accordingly. This occurs because the new situation differs from their established pattern of movement and set environmental conditions. Conditioning theories are often stereotypically used by the armed forces.

9. Cognitive Theories of Learning/Insight Learning The cognitive theory of learning, or Gestalt theory, proposes that a performer learns by thinking about the whole problem. They understand what is required and formulate a response based on previous experiences plus the current situation, rather than a series of specific responses to various stimuli. They use their perceptual skills to formulate a motor programme suited to the current situation and their own abilities. This form of learning is also known a ‘insight’ learning, as there is a clear discovery of the relationship between the stimulus and response. Trial and error learning is not involved in this process.

10. The coach would ask the performer to complete the whole movement in order to develop an appreciation of how the timing and subroutines of the movement are inter-related rather than break down the skill into its component parts (as in the conditioning theory). Practical Application A novice high jumper would be asked to complete the entire sequence rather than be taught in stages, giving them the opportunity to ‘work out’ the most effective movement for them.

11. Observational Learning Many people learn most effectively by watching others and copying their actions. This is known as ‘vicarious experience’ . It is often more productive than merely giving instructions, as a mental picture is formed allowing the individual to create movement patterns more easily. The use of demonstrations can also be made more effective if reinforcement is used and the model (person demonstrating) is either a significant other or a competent performer from their own peer group. Bandura suggested there should be 4 key elements in place to allow this process t occur. 1. Attention- the amount of notice taken by the learner while observing the model. Coach can place emphasis on specific cues.

12. 2. Retention - the creation of a mental picture for future reference. The coach should not overload the learner with verbal information but allow then to observe the demonstration several times to create a clear image. They may also be encouraged to picture the movement, a technique known as ‘mental rehearsal’. 3. Motor Reproduction- the learner must have the physical ability and confidence to copy, attempt and complete the skill either immediately or after a series of progressive practice sessions. 4. Motivation - the learner must have the drive and desire to copy the actions of the model. This is often based on the successful completion of the skill, its importance, the reinforcement received from others and the perceived status of the model. Conclusion Each theory has it s advantages and disadvantages. Often within a lesson or training session, a combination may be the most suitable depending on the ability and motivation of the participants, the situational factors