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EVIDENCE

EVIDENCE. Definition???? Support for a claim that is discovered from experience or outside authority (page 112). A “claim” is just an “assertion” UNTIL and UNLESS it is supported by evidence What qualifies as “evidence” (and is accepted as valid) varies by the spheres being appealed to.

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EVIDENCE

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  1. EVIDENCE • Definition???? • Support for a claim that is discovered from experience or outside authority (page 112)

  2. A “claim” is just an “assertion” UNTIL and UNLESS it is supported by evidence • What qualifies as “evidence” (and is accepted as valid) varies by the spheres being appealed to

  3. Toulmin Claim – statement advanced to gain the adherence of others Grounds – conditions, events, that provide foundation for your claim Warrant – general statements to justify the grounds Backing – specific EVIDENCE, values, credibility etc Qualifier –the force of the argument (your acceptable level of uncertainty) Rebuttal - answer to anticipated questions by opposition/decision makers

  4. Types of Evidence All evidence is “sphere dependent” Examples Statistics Testimony

  5. Examples Definition: an illustration which can be generalized to the claim being made Find examples relevant to the Sphere you are appealing to Examples appeal to values Hypothetical Examples???

  6. Statistics • Quantifiable data • Mean , Median, Mode • Statistical Trends/Tendencies • Credibility of Sources (global climate change)

  7. Testimony(someone other than the person making the argument) • Testimony of FACT • Testimony of OPINION • (expert opinion –can be countered by other “experts” – becomes an issue of credibility

  8. Where to Look • Internet Search (look for authoritative sources) • Government Documents • Statistical Abstract of the United States • Organizational Publications • Periodical Publications • Time, Newsweek, US News – NYTimes – Wall Street Journal etc.

  9. TESTS OF EVIDENCE • Credibility – source qualifications • Accuracy/Reliability • Originality of Observation (avoid second-hand evidence) • Recency • Bias (attitudes of the observer – do they have a hidden agenda) • Consistency or Contradiction with established info/data

  10. Statistics • Source bias (NRA or Uniform Crime Reports of the DOJ?) • Statistical Accuracy (statistical exercise) Simply put – do the numbers add up!!!!! • Comparable units (US and Canada? Or Iraq and Iran?)

  11. Record/Save your Evidence • Note cards • Data files on flash drives etc (so you are not printing out lots of pages)

  12. Reasoning with the Audience • Cause and Effect • Generalization (Inductive Reasoning – moving from a specific to the general) • A Parallel Case (events are similar) • Comparative Advantage

  13. Analogy (fundamental sameness in different cases one is “like” another) • Authority – credibility and expertise • Appeal based on Dichotomy - force a choice between only 2 choices

  14. Fallacies in Argument • Hasty Generalization (non representative sample – too little info etc) • Slippery Slope • Red Herring • Non Sequitur (Irrelevant Argument – does not follow) • Circular Reasoning

  15. Forcing a False Dichotomy • Appeal to Ignorance (ad ignoratium) no proof to the contrary exists • Appeal to the People/popularity (ad populum) to peoples prejudices, “most people” or “it is commonly known” • Appeal to Emotion (such as emotionally charged language – pro-murder etc)

  16. Appeal to Authority • Appeal to Tradition • Appeal to Humor • Argumentum Ad Hominem – attack the person not the argument (verbal aggression)

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