Chapter 13

1. Chapter 13 Motivation and Emotion Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

2. Motivation • Motivation is what gives behaviour its energy and direction. • It initiates our actions. • It determines what we pursue. • It determines how intensely and persistently we pursue it. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

3. Drive Theory of Motivation • We have basic biological needs that are essential for our survival: food, water, air, sleep, warmth... • When a need is not met, we are motivated (driven) to meet it. This necessitates a regulatory system to achieve a steady state (homeostasis) regarding the need. • The temperature thermostat is the most commonly used example • of a homeostatic system. • There is a set point (the desired temperature). • There is a device for detecting deviations from the set point. • There is a corrective mechanism (furnace comes on). Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

4. Homeostasis in Hunger • The set point: (satiation). • Detecting deviation: (nutrient detectors signal depletion). • There is a corrective mechanism (hunger and drive to eat). • Of course, people often eat for reasons that have nothing to do with hunger. So homeostasis is only part of the story: • -Social pressure. • -Hedonism (good taste). • -Cultural norms. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

5. Video on the Way We Eat Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

6. Culture and Diet • Toronto provides plenty of examples of how much food varies across cultures. • “Ethnic food” does not only vary in the way ingredients are prepared. The ingredients themselves differ from one culture to another. • In addition, the amount of food people consume differs across cultures. • Let see what has happened in China as the country has become richer and is adopting eating habits from North America. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

7. Video on Changing Eating Habits Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

8. Eating Disorders Eating disorders illustrate that eating is not a simple matter of satisfying a drive. In some disorders, the regulation of eating can be way off: Anorexia and bulimia. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

9. Anorexia Nervosa • Deliberate self-starvation with weight loss • Intense, persistent fear of gaining weight • Refusal to eat, except tiny portions • Abuse of laxatives, diuretics, diet pills • • Compulsive exercise Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

10. Bulimia Nervosa • Preoccupation with food • Binge eating, usually in secret • Self-induced vomiting after bingeing • Abuse of laxatives, diuretics, diet pills • Compulsive exercise Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

11. Video on Eating Disorders Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

12. Where to Find Help at UTSC www.utsc.utoronto.ca/~wellness Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

13. Do Men and Women Differ in Sex Drive? Sex Drive: strength of sexual motivation (intensity + frequency). Baumeister et al. (2001) reviewed a large number of indicators of sex drive. In each case, the indicator was evaluated to see what it suggested about the strength of the sex drive in men and women. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

14. Sexual Fantasies Premise: stronger sex drive = think about sex more. A study published in 1994 revealed that more than 50% of men reported thinking about sex everyday, whereas only 20% of women indicated the same. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

15. Desired Number of Sex Partners Premise: stronger sex drive = desire for more partners Studies have asked men and women how many sexual partners they would like in the next two years. Next 2 years: W 1 M 8 College (rest of life): W 3 M 64 Infidelity is also much higher for men than women. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

16. Masturbation Premise: stronger sex drive = more masturbation Survey results published in 1990 revealed that 45% of men and 15% of women masturbate at least once a week. Similar differences (with higher frequencies) were obtained in Germany. Masturbation, being performed in private, is unencumbered by social pressure, thus controlling for this explanation of the difference. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

17. Seeking Sex Premise: stronger sex drive = initiating sexual activity Men tend to initiate sex 3 times more often than women during the first year of marriage (1981). In one study (1989) male and female college students were approached by a person of the opposite sex who was average in attractiveness and were asked: “Would you go to bed with me?” What percentage of women and men said yes? Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

18. Prevalence of Low Sexual Desire Premise: stronger sexual drive = high sexual desire Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder (HSDD): constantly low or absent desire for sexual activity or sexual fantasies. Many couples who seek sex therapy do so because of the problem of low sexual desire. Women make up 81% of diagnosed cases of low sexual desire, men 19%. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

19. Self-Rated Sex Drive Premise: stronger sex drive = higher rating In 1979, sex drive scales administered to both women and men showed that women rate their sexual urges as less strong than men do. This pattern was also found in middle-aged persons as well as people between 80 and 102. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

20. Conclusion In conclusion, Baumeister et al. (2001) suggests that there is a systematic difference in sexual drives between men and women and that the gap is not closing. However, this does not mean that women do not enjoy sex. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

21. Testosterone The role of androgens (e.g., testosterone) is crucial in the sex drive. Both men and women produce testosterone, but males produce a lot more than women. Studies where people are treated with testosterone show an increase in the participants’ sexual drive. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

22. Evolution The consequences of sexual activity are much greater for women than for men. Women are normally the primary caregivers for children. It makes more evolutionary sense for them to be more selective of their mates and to be less promiscuous than men. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

23. Happiness Question: What makes us happy? Answer: Lots of things… but not for long! “Every desirable experience - passionate love, a spiritual high, the pleasure of a new possession, the exhilaration of success – is transitory”* *David Myers The Pursuit of Happiness, 1992. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

24. C’mon, money must buy some happiness! Are rich people happier than poor people? People who earn $50,000 a year are much happier than those who earn $10,000. BUT People who earn $5 million dollars a year are not much happier than those who earn $100,000 a year. CONCLUSION “It hurts to be hungry, cold, sick, tired and worried, but once freed from these burdens, money is an increasing pile of useless paper.”* *Daniel Gilbert Stumbling on Happiness, 2006. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

25. Lottery Winners Surely winning big at the lottery makes us happy!? A study comparing lottery winners (average win = $2 million) to people who had not won the lottery found that their overall rated happiness was about the same. Yes, lottery winners rated winning the lottery as a highly positive event. But, since that initial excitement, they found most mundane pleasures such as talking with a friend, watching TV, eating breakfast, hearing a funny joke, reading a magazine, buying clothes and getting a compliment, less pleasurable than non-lottery winners. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

26. Adaptation Level Theory We automatically adapt to our circumstances so that they become neutral to us. DEMONSTRATION Place your left hand in cold water and your right hand in warm water. Now place both hands in a bucket of room-temperature water. How does this water feel to each hand? The adaptation level serves as a set point – we judge the new situation in relation to the set point. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

27. The Hedonic Treadmill It is as if when it comes to improving our happiness, we are on a treadmill, running harder and harder but staying in the same place! The only consolation is that we also adapt to terrible circumstances. In one study, individuals who suffered a disabling accident reported strong negative emotions after the accident, but two months later they felt generally happy. Hedonism = The pursuit of pleasure. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

28. Five Qualifications to the Hedonic Treadmill • The set point is above neutral: Most people are happy. • Set points differ from one person to the other: Some people are naturally happier than others. • Overall happiness is made up of several set points for different domains of our lives. • Happiness can change: people do not adapt completely, especially to very negative life events. • Some people adapt to positive and negative events more than others. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

29. Emotion • Physiological Response: • Increased heart rate and blood pressure (palpitation) • Inhibition of salivation (dry mouth) • Breathing disruption (acceleration / temporary stoppage) • Muscle tension (tremor) • Hormone secretion • Expressive Reaction: • Facial expression • Behaviour (running away, acting out) • Subjective Experience: • Feeling of fear, anger, happiness, etc. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

30. Subjective Experience of Emotion Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

31. James-Lange Theory Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

32. Schachter & Singer’s Two Component Theory Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

33. LeDoux’s Brain Pathways of Defense www.cns.nyu.edu/home/ledoux Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

34. Lie Detection The lie detector test (polygraph) assumes three things: • The liar (criminal) knows his/her assertion is a lie. • The liar’s efforts at deception are accompanied by emotional responses. • These emotional responses cause physiological reactions which cannot be controlled, but can be measured. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

35. The Polygraph Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

36. Respiration Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

37. Blood Pressure-Pulse Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

38. Questioning Procedures • The polygraph test is preceded by an interview. A list of questions is gone over with the suspect to make sure that he or she understands them. The questions are basic yes/no questions. • At the same time, operators try to convince the suspect that the polygraph test is infallible. ‘As long as you tell the truth, everything will be fine!’ • These comments tend to increase the reactivity of the guilty party. Sometimes, they even lead to a confession. At the same time, the comments convince innocent parties to relax. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

39. The Control Question Test • Relevant Questions: explicit questions about the crime.‘Did you shoot Mr. Smith?’ • Irrelevant Questions: neutral questions which create a base level of responding.‘Is today Monday?’ • Control Questions: upsetting questions which ought to have the same emotional impact on an innocent person as the critical questions: “Did you ever steal something before the age of 20?” Lying is determined by comparing the physiological responses to relevant and control questions. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

40. Deception Responses Relevant Relevant Control Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

41. Video on the Polygraph Test Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

42. Are Polygraph Tests Accurate? • Polygraph operators claim an accuracy rate of around 90% • In his book A Tremor in the Blood, David Lykken demonstrates that there is no basis for this claim. • Laboratory studies tend to find that lie detection based on polygraph data is 70% to 85% accurate. Is this good enough when there is a possibility of convicting an innocent person? • Operators claim that laboratory results cannot be generalized to real situations. In the lab, people are not in jeopardy so they do not feel strong anxiety about being found out. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

43. Can You Beat the Test? • Suppressing emotionality is very difficult. • The best way to fool polygraph operators is to react emotionally to control questions by, for example, strongly contracting one’s toes. • Although polygraph operators claim that this is easily detected, in fact it can only be detected if it is done in a very clumsy way. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

44. Natural Cues to Lying • The cues that people use to decide if someone is lying or telling the truth have been studied in natural settings such as in airport customs inspections (Kraut & Poe, 1980). • People tend to agree on the cues they consider to be signs of lying, but these cues are not accurate. • Research has shown that people are usually not good at detecting lies (they are often no better than flipping a coin about whether someone is lying or not). Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

45. Facial Expressions of Emotions Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

46. Universality of Expressions Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

47. Facial Cues to Lying? • Can one tell a person’s feelings by looking at the face? • Is the liar so scared of being found out that his face looks like this (if ever so slightly)? Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

48. Expression Control and Display Rules • We are very good at controlling what appears on our face: • Masking: Hiding an emotion so it does not appear on the face. • Simulation: Expressing and emotion that is not felt. • Modulation: Exaggerate or minimize a felt emotion. • Cultural norms influence our expression of emotions: • Display Rules: What is appropriate in different cultures. • Despite our control over expressing our emotions, might there be leakage of inner feelings? Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

49. Microexpressions and Context • By slowing the playback of facial responses one can catch glimpses of microexpressions. • Taking into account the context in which the microexpression appears, one can get a clue to lying. • Paul Ekman has studied lying in detail…. Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion

50. Video on Detecting Lying 12:31 Chapter 13 - Motivation & Emotion