Genetics

1. Genetics BIO.B.2

2. Protein Synthesis

3. RNA • Made up of • Phosphate • Ribose (a sugar) • Four bases • RNA bases are: • Adenine • Guanine • Cytosine • Uracil (instead of thymine)

4. Single stranded • Forms part of ribosomes • Two types of RNA: • tRNA (transfer) • mRNA (messenger)

5. TRANSCRIPTION USING DNA TO MAKE mRNA • RNA polymerase(an enzyme) unzips DNA by breaking the Hydrogen bonds between the bases.

6. Only one strand of DNA is transcribed. • Complementary RNA nucleotides are added to the DNA strand. DNA RNA • A – U • G – C • T – A • C – G

7. The start codon is the signal for the place to start transcription. • Transcription stops at the stop codons. • The sequence of bases along DNA that is transcribed is a gene. • The RNA that is made is mRNA. DNALC animation

9. mRNA PROCESSING • After mRNA is made, enzymes may cut out pieces of the strand. • The sections that are removed are called introns.

10. The sections that remain are called exons and are put together. • The finished/mature mRNA strand then leaves the nucleus and is ready for translation.

12. The Importance of Proteins • Each gene controls the making of aprotein. • A gene is section of DNA that gives instructions for a specific protein to be made

13. 20 amino acids make up all proteins • Proteins are required for almost every reaction that occurs in your body!

14. CODONS • Codon - three bases in a row that determine the amino acid that is used to make a protein.

15. mRNA Codon Chart

16. Some codons do not represent amino acids, but instead act as stop signals (the end of a protein). • Note, one amino acid may have more than one codon.

17. TRANSLATIONFROM mRNA TO PROTEIN • Begins when a ribosome attaches to a mRNAstrand. • mRNAis used to make a specific protein (or polypeptide).

18. RIBOSOMES • The organelle where proteins are made. • They are made up of 2 subunits with 2 binding sites.

20. tRNA • tRNA (transfer RNA)is a strand of nucleotides that has anamino acidattached to it. • tRNA carries the appropriate amino acid to the mRNA/ribosome complex. • If mRNA is UGG then the tRNA is ACC.

21. Translation begins with the start codon. • Each amino acid that is brought in to the ribosome is attached to the growing amino acid chain (or protein) • The bond between amino acids is called a peptide bond.

23. About 15 amino acids are added per second. • Translation stops when a stop codon is reached. • There are no tRNA’s for the stop codons. • The protein is released to do its job.

26. Where does the protein go? • Sometimes the finished protein goes into the rough ER. The rough ER transports it to various places including the plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus, and cytoplasm. • The Golgi processes and packages proteins. Fro example, some proteins have sugars attached to them. The remodeled proteins leave the Golgi in vesicles (sacs) to go to other parts of the cell or to leave the cell.

27. BIOTECHNOLOGY The Golden Age of Biology!

28. Stem Cell Research Gene Therapy Bioinformatics Bioremediation Cloning

29. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

30. Genetic Testing Pharmacogenomics

31. MUTATIONS • Mutation - changes in the DNA sequence that affect genetic information • Types of mutations: • Gene mutations- changes within a single gene • Chromosomal mutations- changes within a whole chromosome (affects multiple genes)

32. Gene Mutations • Point Mutation - a change in a single nucleotide (example: changing an A to a C) • Frame-shift Mutation - an insertion or deletion of a nucleotide that causes a different reading of codons from the point of the change to the end of the gene

33. Point Mutations • Normal AAT TAA TAG GAT TTT AAA • Mutation AAT TAG TAG GAT TTT AAA The G was used instead of an A.

34. Frame-Shift Mutations • Usually occurs as a result of an insertion or deletion • Normal TAC GCA TGG ATT • Insertion TATCGC ATG GAT T T was inserted after the A.

35. Example using words: • THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT • THE FAT C AT A TE T HE R AT • TEF ATC ATA TET HER AT • Just like this mutated sentence does not make sense, frameshift mutations make nonsense proteins that cannot do their jobs correctly. DELETION of H

36. Chromosomal Mutations • Deletion– when part or all of a chromosome is lost • Duplication– when part of a chromosome is mistakenly repeated • Inversion– when part of a chromosome becomes oriented in reverse of its normal direction • Translocation – when one part of a chromosome breaks off and attaches to another nonhomologous (not the partner) chromosome

37. Chromosomal Mutations Deletion Duplication Inversion Translocation

38. When do mutations occur? • During DNA replication, mistakes can be made when DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides. • If this mutation or mistake happens very early on in a baby’s development, the mutation can affect the entire baby. The rest of the cells will have that same mutation. • Remember, we all start off as one cell that must make many news cells through mitosis. Every time your cells divide, DNA has to copy itself and mistakes can be made.

39. If a one of your skin cells divides right now and a mutation occurs, this is probably not a problem. • However, if the mutation causes certain genes to change, the new, mutated skin cell can become a cancer cell.

40. Cause of mutations • Mutagen – any agent that causes DNA to mutate • UV light • Radiation • Smoking • Many different chemicals • Mutations gone wild Cats

41. Gene Regulation • Only some of your genes are being expressed (used to make protein) at any given time. • Your body needs mechanisms to “turn on” or “turn off” genes. • Chemicals can act as blocks or starters. • Some cancers are caused by genes being turned on that should not have been! For example, these genes can be turned on by smoking, which mutates DNA.

42. Genetic Engineering Manipulating DNA

43. Electrophoresis • DNA is cut by restriction enzymes to make fragments. • Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific sequences. • Electrophoresis is a technique that separates DNA fragments (using electricity) in a jello-like slab based on the size of the fragments. • Smaller fragments are able to travel longer distances more quickly. • DNA has a negative charge so the fragments will flow toward the positive electrode (opposites attract).

44. DNA plus restriction enzyme Power source Gel Mixture of DNA fragments

45. If you were to compare two samples of the same DNA using the same restriction enzymes, the banding pattern would be the same. • Different people make different banding patterns.

46. And why would we do this? • DNA Fingerprinting • Paternity Tests • Children have a banding that is a combination of their mom’s and dad’s banding. • Crime solving • Identify the person who committed a crime (no two people have the same DNA) • Medical diagnosis • Determine if you have the gene that causes a disease or disorder.

47. GMOs • Genetically modified organism (GMO) – an organism with DNA that has been altered through genetic engineering • Transgenic - a GMO that has been altered with DNA from another species

49. Transgenic Bacteria • Bacteria have had many different genes put into them • Some examples of human genes that are put into bacteria • Insulin gene • Human growth hormone gene • Clotting factors gene

50. Transgenic Animals • Used to study genes and improve the food supply • Mice with human-like immune system genes. • Livestock with extra copies of growth hormone genes. • Sheep and pigs that produce human proteins in their milk.