Chapter 15 MOTIVATING

1. Chapter 15 MOTIVATING

2. Managing and motivating How context, including psychological contract, affects motivation Behaviour modification Content and process theories Motivation and strategy Cases and examples The Eden Project, IKEA, Gamma, Child Base

3. Overview Figure 15.1 An overview of the chapter

4. Why study motivation? Adding value depends on motivating others. Understanding range of theories enables critical reflection and informed choice of approach. Enables you to question assumptions behind practice, whether they suit the situation and whether alternatives may work better. Models also enable you to reflect on what motivates you, and to consider the career implications.

5. Managing and motivating Adding value to resources depends on human activity – commitment to act in a certain way. That depends on choice – motivation arises within a person, and cannot be imposed. Management problem is to understand what conditions will energise, channel and sustain required behaviour.

6. Some constants in motivation Targets – not just staff: Boss, colleagues and customers – see Chapter 14 Motivation theory also relevant to marketing. Employers seek to motivate staff within an unequal power relationship. Staff interpret management actions within a social context – Figure 15.2.

7. Social context of motivation Figure 15.2 Human needs in context – the situational perspective

8. Psychological contract People have mutual unwritten expectations of each other – a psychological contract Employer expects…../employee expects….. Perceptions of fairness affects behaviour Being subjective, the contract is easily damaged Varies with context – national differences.

9. Behaviour modification Focus on the consequences of actions: by showing link between them, aim to encourage desirable and discourage undesirable behaviour. (see call centre example – p.471) Principles to follow: Reward ONLY desired actions Reward quickly (signals link) Rewards encourage repetition (reinforcement) Reward more effective than punishment Repeated reinforcement brings permanent change.

10. Content theories What needs do people seek to satisfy at work? Maslow and Alderfer (Figure 15.4) Maslow identified a hierarchy of needs As one level becomes partially satisfied, the next becomes stronger. Alderfer tested Maslow’s theory empirically Combined into three, and no evidence of a hierarchy – strength varies between people. Both hard to test empirically But see MIP feature – ‘A new manager at a nursing home’.

11. Maslow and Alderfer Figure 15.4 Comparison of the Maslow and Alderfer categories of needs

12. Herzberg’s contribution Linked ideas on motivation to practical issues of work design Extrinsic factors (hygiene) have less effect on motivation than intrinsic (motivators) Dealing with extrinsic factors may reduce dissatisfaction, but have no effect on satisfaction (Gamma Chemicals).

13. Douglas McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y? Every management action rests on theory Contrasting assumptions of Theory X and Theory Y. Those who see workers as Theory X have different policies (control, time recording and supervision) than those who hold Theory Y assumptions (responsibility, trust and initiative). Hofstede (Section 15.8) showed that assumptions about work vary between countries.

14. Process theories – expectancy Figure 15.6 Organisational practices affecting subjective probabilities

15. Process theories – goal-setting theory Locke (1968) – goals affect motivation Challenging but achievable goals motivate Specific goals motivate more than vague ones Participation in setting goals is motivating Knowing results of past performance is necessary for motivation.

16. Designing work to be motivating Hackman and Oldham (1980) applied ideas of motivational theorists to the design of work. Aimed to design them to be more intrinsically motivating than traditional designs, which reflected Theory X – Figure 15.7.

17. Job characteristics model Figure 15.7 The job characteristics modelSource: Adapted from Work Redesign, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. (Hackman, J.R. and Oldham, G.R. 1980) p. 90, Figure 4.6.

18. Motivation and strategy Jeffrey Pfeffer (2005) suggested that strategic success comes from managing people well by offering: adequate security; high pay and employee ownership; selective recruitment (those chosen feel special); sharing information, participation and empowerment; self-management; training and skill development. See also Lawler (2008).

19. Integrating themes Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurs tend to be motivated by a desire for independence, to pursue an idea and make money. Sustainability Depends on people being motivated to achieve this aim – see Lawler (2008) for ideas. Internationalisation Hofstede (1989) shows that cultures affect national motivation practices. Governance Executive bonuses that reward failure are a sign of weak governance.

20. Summary The psychological contract helps to understand the relationship between organisation and employee. Content theories of motivation show the diversity of needs which people seek to satisfy at work. Process theories show the many ways in which people seek to satisfy those needs. Work design theories link individual needs and organisational requirements.