Chapter 8

1. Chapter 8 Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Childhood PowerPoints developed by Nicholas Greco IV, College of Lake County, Grayslake, IL (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

2. The Development of Self-Understanding • Children increasingly describe themselves with psychological characteristics and traits • They become more likely to recognize social aspects of the self • More likely to distinguish themselves from others in comparative rather than in absolute terms (Harter, 2006) (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

3. Self-Esteem and Self-Concept • Self-esteem -- global evaluations of the self; self-worth or self-image • Self-esteem reflects perceptions that do not always match reality • Self-concept -- domain-specific evaluations of the self • Children self-evaluate in many domains of their lives -- academic, athletic, appearance (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

4. Increasing Children’s Self-Esteem • Identify the causes of low self-esteem • Provide emotional support and social approval • Help children achieve • Help children cope (Bednar, Wells, & Peterson, 1995; Harter, 2006) (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

5. Self-Efficacy • Self-efficacy -- belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes • Self-efficacy influences a student’s choice of activities • students with low self-efficacy for learning may avoid many learning tasks, especially those that are challenging • high-self-efficacy counterparts eagerly work at learning tasks (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

6. Self-Regulation • Self-regulation -- deliberate efforts to manage one’s behavior, emotions, and thoughts that lead to increased social competence and achievement • Capacity in self-regulation is linked to developmental advances in the brain’s prefrontal cortex (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

7. Erikson’s 4th Stage: Industry Versus Inferiority • Industry -- becoming interested in how things are made and how they work • When children are encouraged in their efforts, their sense of industry increases • Parents who see their children’s efforts at making things as “mischief” or “making a mess” foster a sense of inferiority in their children (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

8. Developmental Changes in Emotion • Improved emotional understanding • Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a particular situation • Increased awareness of the events leading to emotional reactions • Ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions • The use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings • A capacity for genuine empathy (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

9. Recommendations for Parents and Teachers to Promote Coping Strategies • Repeatedly reassure children of their safety and security • Allow children to retell events and be patient in listening to them • Encourage children to talk about any disturbing or confusing feelings; confirm normality of the feelings  • Protect children from re-exposure to frightening situations and reminders of the trauma • Help children make sense of what happened (Gurwitch & others, 2001) (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

10. Moral Development • According to Piaget, older children: • consider the intentions of the individual • believe that rules are subject to change • are aware that punishment does not always follow wrongdoing • Based on Piaget, Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development which he believed are universal (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

11. The Kohlberg Stages • Based on Piaget, Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development which he believed were universal • Preconventional reasoning -- children interpret good and bad in terms of external rewards and punishments • Conventional reasoning -- individuals apply certain standards, but they are the standards set by others, such as parents or the government • Postconventional reasoning -- individuals recognize alternative moral courses, explore the options, and then decide on a personal moral code (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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13. Kohlberg’s Substages • Preconventional reasoning • Stage 1. Heteronomous morality • Stage 2. Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange • Conventional reasoning • Stage 3. Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity • Stage 4. Social systems morality • Postconventional reasoning • Stage 5. Social contract or utility and individual rights • Stage 6. Universal ethical principles (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

14. Kohlberg’s Critics • Key criticisms involve • link between moral thought and moral behavior • roles of culture and the family in moral development • significance of concern for others • Kohlberg’s theory misses or misconstrues some moral concepts in particular cultures (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

15. Gender and the Care Perspective • The most publicized criticism of Kohlberg’s theory has come from Carol Gilligan • She argues that Kohlberg’s theory reflects a gender bias • Kohlberg’s theory is based on a male norm that puts abstract principles above relationships and concern for others • In contrast to Kohlberg’s justice perspective, Gilligan argues for a care perspective (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

16. Prosocial Behavior • Kohlberg’s and Gilligan’s theories have focused on moral reasoning • Study of prosocial moral behavior emphasizes behavioral aspects of moral development • sharing is one aspect of prosocial behavior • by the elementary school years, children express objective ideas about fairness (Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006) (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

17. Gender Stereotypes and Gender Similarities and Differences • Gender stereotypes -- broad categories that reflect general impressions and beliefs about females and males • Similarities and differences between boys and girls -- bear in mind… • the differences are averages • even when differences are reported, there is considerable gender overlap • the differences may be due primarily to biological and/or sociocultural factors (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

18. Physical Development   • Males grow to be 10 percent taller • Females have a longer life expectancy • Females are less likely to develop physical or mental disorders • Males have twice the risk of coronary disease • Researchers have found some differences in the brains of males and females (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

19. Cognitive Development   • Males have better math and visuospatial skills, whereas females have better verbal abilities • Gender difference in visuospatial skills may be small (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

20. Socioemotional Development   • Boys are more physically aggressive than girls • girls tend to be more verbally aggressive • there are no definitive findings on relational aggression -- behaviors such as spreading malicious rumors or ignoring someone when angry • Girls are more likely to express their emotions openly and intensely than boys • Girls are better at reading others’ emotions and more likely to show empathy • Males usually show less self-regulation of emotion than females • May lead to behavioral problems (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

21. Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior • Females view themselves as more prosocial and empathic • Across childhood and adolescence, females engage in more prosocial behavior • The biggest gender difference occurs for kind and considerate behavior with a smaller difference in sharing (Eisenberg & Morris, 2004; Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998; Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006) (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

22. Gender-Role Classification; Gender in Context • Androgyny -- the presence of positive masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person • androgynous individuals are more flexible, competent, and mentally healthy • The importance of considering gender in context is very apparent when examining what is culturally prescribed behavior for females and males in different countries around the world (Bem, 1977; Spence & Helmreich, 1978) (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

23. Developmental Changes in Parent-Child Relationships • In middle and late childhood years, parents spend considerably less time with children • Parents continue to be important • Parents support and stimulate academic achievement • Children receive less physical discipline than they did as preschoolers • Children in grade school use more self-regulation (Huston & Ripke, 2006) (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

24. Parents as Managers • Parents can play important roles • managers of children’s opportunities • monitors of children’s behavior • social initiators and arrangers • Family management practices are positively related to students’ grades and self-responsibility, and negatively to school-related problems (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

25. Stepfamilies • About half of all children whose parents divorce will have a stepparent within four years of the separation • Complex histories and multiple relationships make adjustment difficult in a stepfamily • Three common types of stepfamily structure • Stepfather; stepmother; or blended/complex • Children often have better relationships with their custodial parents • Simple families show better adjustment than complex (blended) families (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

26. Types of Stepfamilies • Three common types of stepfamily structure are: • stepfather • mother typically had custody of the children and remarried • stepmother • father usually had custody and remarried • blended or complex • In a blended or complex stepfamily, both parents bring children from previous marriages to live in the newly formed stepfamily (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

27. Developmental Changes • Reciprocity becomes especially important in peer interchanges • As children move through middle and late childhood, the amount of time spent in social interaction with peers increases • Size of their peer group increases • Peer interaction is less closely supervised by adults • Until age 12, same-sex peer groups are preferred (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006) (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

28. Peer Status • Sociometric status -- describes the extent to which children are liked or disliked by their peer group • 5 peer statuses • Popular children • Average children • Neglected children • Rejected children • Controversial children (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

29. Being Popular • Popular children • give out reinforcements • listen carefully • maintain open lines of communication with peers • are happy and control their negative emotions • show enthusiasm and concern for others • are self-confident without being conceited (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

30. Social Cognition • Social cognition -- thinking about social matters • important for understanding peer relationships • 5 steps in processing information about the social world • decode social cues • interpret • search for a response • select an optimal response • enact (Dodge, 1983) (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

31. Bullying • Bullying has been defined as verbal or physical behavior intended to disturb someone less powerful • Boys are more likely than girls to be bullies (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

32. Bullying • Bullied children reported more loneliness and difficulty in making friends • Anxious and socially withdrawn children may be victimized because they are non-threatening and unlikely to retaliate • Aggressive children may be the targets because their behavior is irritating to bullies (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

33. Bullying • Those who did the bullying were more likely to have a poor academic record and to smoke and drink alcohol • Victims of bullies had • Suicidal ideation and depression • Higher incidence of headaches • Dizziness • Sleeping problems • Anxiety (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

34. Bullying • INSERT FIGURE 8.4 HERE (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

35. Functions of Friendships • Children’s friendships can serve six functions • companionship  • stimulation • physical support • ego support • social comparison • affection and intimacy • Intimacy in friendships -- characterized by self-disclosure and sharing private thoughts Gottman & Parker, 1987; Berndt & Perry, 1990) (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

36. Constructivist and Direct Instruction Approaches • Constructivist approach -- learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher • children should be encouraged to explore their world, discover knowledge, reflect, and think critically with careful monitoring and meaningful guidance from the teacher (Eby, Herrell, & Jordan, 2011) (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

37. Direct Instruction Approach • Direct instruction approach -- structured, teacher-centered approach characterized by teacher direction and control, high expectations for students’ progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum • Important goal: maximizing student learning (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

38. Constructivist Versus Direct Instruction Approach • Constructivists argue that direct instruction turns children into passive learners and does not challenge them to think critically or creatively • Direct instructions say that constructivists do not give enough attention to the content of a discipline and instruction is too relativistic and vague (Duffy & Kirkley, 2004) (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

39. Accountability • Demands for accountability include • State-mandated tests to measure just what students have or have not learned • High expectations and high standards for students • Became national policy in 2002 when the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation was signed into law • Criticisms of NCLB • Single tests • Teaching to the test • Tests are too narrow -- don’t focus on other aspects such as creativity, motivation, and social skills • Standards vary per state (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

40. Socioeconomic Status, Ethnicity, and Culture • Schools in low-income areas are more likely to: • have more students with low achievement test scores • have low graduation rates • have small percentages of students going to college • have young teachers with less experience • encourage rote learning • have buildings and classrooms that are old and crumbling (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

41. Ethnicity in Schools • Many inner-city schools are still segregated, grossly underfunded, and do not provide adequate opportunities for children to learn effectively • School segregation remains a factor in U.S. education • The school experiences of students from different ethnic groups vary considerably (Banks, 2010; Bennett, 2011) (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

42. Ethnicity in Schools • African American and Latino students are much less likely to be enrolled in academic, college preparatory programs • Much more likely to be enrolled in remedial or special education programs (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

43. Ethnicity in Schools • Strategies for improving relationships among ethnically diverse students: • Turn the class into a jigsaw classroom • Encourage students to have positive personal contact with diverse other students • Reduce bias • View the school and community as a team • Be a competent cultural mediator (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

44. Cross-Cultural Comparisons • Asian students do better in math than U.S. students • Greater time spent on math instruction in Asian schools • Asian parents have higher expectations for their children’s education and achievements • Asian parents believe that their children’s math achievement was the consequence of effort and training • Asian students more likely to do math homework • Asian parents more likely to help children with math homework (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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46. Cross-Cultural Comparisons • Mind-set is the cognitive view individuals develop for themselves • Fixed mind-set • Growth mind-set • Dweck argues that individuals’ mind-sets influence whether they will be optimistic or pessimistic (c) 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.