Cross-linguistic influence (CLI) and transfer of learning

1. Cross-linguistic influence (CLI) and transfer of learning Mark Andrew James Arizona State University [I]t is natural to wonder about the relation between language transfer [i.e., CLI] and transfer of learning in other contexts. Odlin 2003: 477

2. Overview • CLI and learning transfer appear, on the surface, to be similar constructs. • In research literature dealing with CLI, there are few constructive links to learning transfer research and theory. • CLI research and theory might benefit from stronger connections to learning transfer research and theory.

3. Definitions • CLI (or language transfer) • the influence that knowledge of one language has on an individual’s learning or use of another language (Gass & Selinker 1992; Jarvis & Pavlenko 2008). • Learning transfer • the influence that prior learning has on subsequent learning or performance (Perkins & Salomon 1994).

4. Links to learning transfer in CLI literature • Evolution of CLI research from learning transfer research (e.g., Major 2008; Selinker 1969); • Learning transfer theory as basis for teaching for CLI (Politzer 1965; Rivers 1964); • Learning transfer theory (e.g., vertical vs. lateral) as relevant to CLI (Odlin 2003; Olivares 2002); • Definitions of learning transfer in discussions of CLI (Arabski 2006; Sajavaara 1986); • Learning transfer research as relevant to ambiguity of the term “transfer” (Dechert 2006).

5. Factors that influence CLI and learning transfer • Perceptions of (cross-linguistic) similarity. • Language proficiency / knowledge base. • Motivation / disposition. • Interlocutor characteristics / socio-cultural context. • Automaticity / amount and type of practice.

6. Divergence of CLI research/theory from learning transfer • SLA scholars became uncomfortable drawing on learning transfer research/theory because of its association with behavioral psychology. [I]t is exceedingly difficult to apply these findings to the foreign language learning situation because the experimental materials, the degrees of original learning, and other variables are quite different from those occurring in foreign language learning. Carroll, 1968, p.120

7. 1. Is learning transfer research/theory associated with behavioral psychology? • While a behavioral psychology perspective was common in early research/theory on learning transfer, other perspectives have been taken: • gestalt psychology; • cognitive psychology; • socio-cultural psychology.

8. 2. Are the behaviors studied in learning transfer research unrelated to language? • knowledge of vocabulary (Ganea et al 2008); • knowledge of grammar (Ninio 2005); • pronunciation (Nation et al 2001); • listening perception (Peele & Wingfield 2005); • phonological awareness (Benson 2000); • reading skills and strategies (Aulls 2003; Compton et al 2005; Gromko 2004; Martin-Chang et al 2007; Williams et al 2005); • writing skills and strategies (Aulls 2003; Berninger et al 2006; Glaser & Brunstein 2007; James 2009).

9. 3. Do CLI and learning transfer research differ in terms of depth of learning? • Current definitions of CLI tend to be broad and include not only the influence of a L1 on the learning/use of a L2, but also the influence of a L2 on the learning/use of a L3 (or L4, etc.), as well as the influence of a L2 on L1 use. • … this means the source of CLI may not be a deeply-learned L1 system; it may instead be a less deeply-learned L2 system.

10. Implications Learning transfer research/theory may … (a) help answer questions raised about CLI. • How does an individual recognize crosslinguistic similarity? (b) point to questions potentially relevant to CLI. • How might similarity in genre between texts used in L1 situations and texts used in L2 situations influence CLI? • How might motivation influence CLI? • How might sociocultural context influence CLI?

11. Conclusion • There is a deep relationship between CLI and learning transfer. • … overlap can be seen conceptually and in existing research and theory. • So, research/theory on CLI might benefit from connections to research/theory on learning transfer.

12. References (1 of 4) • Arabski, Janusz (2006). Language transfer in language learning and language contact. In Cross-linguistic influences in the second language lexicon, Janusz Arabski (ed.), 12-21. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. • Aulls, Mark W. (2003). The influence of a reading and writing curriculum on transfer learning across subjects and grades. Reading Psychology, 24: 177-215. • Benson, Nancy J. (2000). Analysis of specific deficits: Evidence of transfer in disabled and normal readers following oral-motor awareness training. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92: 646-658. • Berninger, Virginia W., Judith E. Rutberg, Robert D. Abbott, Noelia Garcia, Marci Anderson-Youngstrom, Allison Brooks, and Cynthia Fulton (2006). Tier 1 and tier 2 early intervention for handwriting and composing. Journal of School Psychology, 44: 3-30. • Carroll, John B. (1968). Contrastive analysis and interference theory. In Report of the nineteenth annual round table meeting on linguistics and language studies, James E. Alatis (ed.), 113-122. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. • Compton, Donald L., Natalie G. Olinghouse, Amy Elleman, Jan Vining, Amanda C. Appleton, Jennifer Vail, and Marci Summers (2005). Putting transfer back on trial: Modeling individual differences in the transfer of decoding-skill gains to other aspects of reading acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97: 55-69.

13. References (2 of 4) • Dechert, Hans W. (2006). On the ambiguity of the notion ‘transfer’. In Cross-linguistic influences in the second language lexicon, Janusz Arabski (ed.), 3-11. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. • Ganea, Patricia A., Megan Bloom Pickard, and Judy S. DeLoache (2008). Transfer between picture books and the real world by very young children. Journal of Cognition and Development, 9: 46-66. • Gass, Susan M. and Larry Selinker (1992). Introduction. In Language transfer in language learning, Susan M. Gass and Larry Selinker (eds.), 1-17. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. • Glaser, Cornelia and Joachim C. Brunstein (2007). Improving fourth-grade students’ composition skills: Effects of strategy instruction and self-regulation procedures. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99: 297-310. • Gromko, Joyce E. (2004). Predictors of music sight-reading ability in high school wind players. Journal of Research in Music Education, 52: 6-15. • Haskell, Robert E. (2001). Transfer of learning: Cognition, instruction, and reasoning. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, Incorporated. • James, Mark A. (2009). “Far” transfer of learning outcomes from an ESL writing course: Can the gap be bridged? Journal of Second Language Writing, 18: 69-84.

14. References (3 of 4) • Jarvis, Scott and Aneta Pavlenko. (2008). Crosslinguistic influence in language and cognition. New York, NY: Routledge. • Major, Roy C. (2008). Transfer in second language phonology: A review. In Phonology and second language acquisition, Jette G. Hansen and M.L. Zampini (eds.), 63-94. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Company. • Martin-Chang, Sandra L., Betty A. Levy, and Sara O’Neil (2007). Word acquisition, retention, and transfer: Findings from contextual and isolated word training. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 96: 37-56. • Nation, Kate, Richard Allen, and Charles Hulme. (2001). The limitations of orthographic analogy in early reading development: Performance on the clue-word task depends on phonological priming and elementary decoding skill, not the use of orthographic analogy. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 80: 75-94. • Ninio, Anat (2005). Testing the role of semantic similarity in syntactic development. Journal of Child Language, 32: 35-61. • Odlin, Terence (2003). Crosslinguistic influence. In The handbook of second language acquisition, Catherine.Doughty and Michael Long (eds.), 436-486. Malden, MA: Blackwell. • Olivares, Rafael A. (2002). Communication, constructivism and transfer of knowledge in the education of bilingual learners. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 5: 4-19.

15. References (4 of 4) • Peelle, Jonathan E. and Arthur Wingfield (2005). Dissociations in perceptual learning revealed by adult age differences in adaptation to time-compressed speech. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 31: 1315-1330. • Perkins, D.N., & Salomon, G. (1994). Transfer of learning. In T. Husen & T.N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of education (second edition), (vol. 11, pp.6452-6457). Oxford, UK: Pergamon. • Politzer, Robert (1965). Some reflections on transfer of training in foreign language learning. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 3: 171-177. • Rivers, Wilga M. (1964). The psychologist and the foreign language teacher. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. • Pugh, K.J., & Bergin, D.A. (2006). Motivational influences on transfer. Educational Psychologist, 41: 147-160. • Sajavaara, Kari (1986). Transfer and second language speech processing. In Crosslinguistic influence in second language acquisition, Eric Kellerman and Michael Sharwood Smith (eds.), 66-79. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press. • Selinker, Larry (1969). Language transfer. General Linguistics, 9: 67-92. • Williams, Joanna P., Kendra M. Hall, Kristen D. Lauer, K. Brooke Stafford, Laura A. DeSisto, and John S. deCani (2005). Expository text comprehension in the primary grade classroom. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97: 538-550.