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Enhancing Learning Through Chunking Technique

Learn how chunking can help absorb and retain information effectively. Explore examples and tips to apply chunking in learning and coding. Discover the evolution of computer systems and operating systems over decades.

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Enhancing Learning Through Chunking Technique

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  1. Tip #6: Chunking Computer Systems • A primary method that the brain uses to help it absorb more information is called 'chunking'. • One chunk is a recognizable piece of information that be fitted into one of the 'slots' in short-term memory. The actual amount of information in a chunk is quite variable - it need only be recognizable as a single packet. • A chunk may contain other chunks, which allows us to assimilate large amounts of information at once (e.g. we can remember and recognize a person as single chunk.) • Examples: newspaper articles, phone numbers, IP addresses, lists, etc. Un-chunked List: Bread Ice cream Milk Tomatoes Eggs Butter Apples English muffins Frozen vegetables Lettuce Cream Bananas Chunked List: Frozen FoodsBakery Ice cream Bread Frozen vegetables Bagels DiaryFruits / Vegetables Milk Tomatoes Eggs Apples Butter Lettuce Cream Bananas • Chunking makes block structured languages like C/C++ natural to use. • The program is a single chunk, which is divided and subdivided into smaller and smaller chunks, each visibly and logically distinguishable. • A knowledgeable reader can read in big chunks, while a less experience reader must work in smaller chunks. Thus the author of a function can read a complex expression as single chunk, while a new reader must break it down into variables and operators and understand these individual chunks before he can piece it back together into a single understood chunk.

  2. http://syque.com/cstyle/contents.htm Tip #6: Chunking (continued) • Lay out code in chunks • The smallest effective chunk is a single token (e.g. identifier, operator, keyword). • Larger chunks such as parenthesized items, single comparisons, etc. build into larger expressions and statements. • Groups of statements which together perform an identifiable act are also chunks, as are individual functions and complete subsystems. • Items which are close together form a visual chunk and have an implied association. If they are separated, then they appear less associated. When an item is between two other items, it will appear more closely associated with the item to which it is positioned closest. • Vertical white space (form feeds and blank lines) can be used not only to separate chunks but also to show relationships between chunks. • By recognizing chunks and making them stand out, code can be made more readable which means more maintainable.

  3. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PDP-1 IBM System/360 EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  4. Brief Look at the Evolution of OS Operating Systems • 1960s: Disks become mainstream • The first disk drive, the IBM 350 disk storage unit, was introduced in 1956. It had a capacity of 3.75 megabytes stored as five million six-bit characters on fifty (!) 24-inch diameter disks. • IBM leased it for $3,200 per month. • By the 1960’s disk storage finally comes into widespread use. It offers high capacity, almost-random-access-storage. • IBM created a family of Disk Operating Systems (DOS, DOS–2314, DOS MP, DOS VS, DOS/VSE) to take advantage of this technology.

  5. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PDP-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  6. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PDP-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe DEC PD-8 EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  7. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PDP-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe DEC PD-8 Intel 4004 EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  8. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PDP-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe DEC PD-8 Intel 4004 CRAY-1 EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  9. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PDP-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe DEC PD-8 Intel 4004 CRAY-1 Ethernet, WYSIWYG, Mouse EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  10. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PDP-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe DEC PD-8 Intel 4004 CRAY-1 Ethernet, WYSIWYG, Mouse Altair 8800 EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  11. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PDP-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe DEC PD-8 Intel 4004 CRAY-1 Ethernet, WYSIWYG, Mouse Altair 8800 BASIC, CP/M EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  12. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PDP-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe DEC PD-8 Intel 4004 CRAY-1 Ethernet, WYSIWYG, Mouse Altair 8800 BASIC, CP/M Apple II, PET, Atari EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  13. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PDP-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe DEC PD-8 Intel 4004 CRAY-1 Ethernet, WYSIWYG, Mouse Altair 8800 BASIC, CP/M Apple II, PET, Atari DEC VAX 11/780 EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  14. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PD-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe DEC PDP-8 Intel 4004 CRAY-1 Ethernet, WYSIWYG, Mouse Altair 8800 BASIC, CP/M Apple II, PET, Atari DEC VAX 11/780 Visicalc, WordStar EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  15. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PD-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe DEC PDP-8 Intel 4004 CRAY-1 Ethernet, WYSIWYG, Mouse Altair 8800 BASIC, CP/M Apple II, PET, Atari DEC VAX 11/780 Visicalc, WordStar IBM PC EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  16. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PD-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe DEC PDP-8 Intel 4004 CRAY-1 Ethernet, WYSIWYG, Mouse Altair 8800 BASIC, CP/M Apple II, PET, Atari DEC VAX 11/780 Visicalc, WordStar IBM PC Apple Macintosh EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  17. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PD-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe DEC PDP-8 Intel 4004 CRAY-1 Ethernet, WYSIWYG, Mouse Altair 8800 BASIC, CP/M Apple II, PET, Atari DEC VAX 11/780 Visicalc, WordStar IBM PC Apple Macintosh SUN NFS EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  18. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PD-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe DEC PDP-8 Intel 4004 CRAY-1 Ethernet, WYSIWYG, Mouse Altair 8800 BASIC, CP/M Apple II, PET, Atari DEC VAX 11/780 Visicalc, WordStar IBM PC Apple Macintosh SUN NFS MACH vs Amoeba EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  19. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PD-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe DEC PDP-8 Intel 4004 CRAY-1 Ethernet, WYSIWYG, Mouse Altair 8800 BASIC, CP/M Apple II, PET, Atari DEC VAX 11/780 Visicalc, WordStar IBM PC Apple Macintosh SUN NFS MACH vs Amoeba Windows 3.0 EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  20. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PD-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe DEC PDP-8 Intel 4004 CRAY-1 Ethernet, WYSIWYG, Mouse Altair 8800 BASIC, CP/M Apple II, PET, Atari DEC VAX 11/780 Visicalc, WordStar IBM PC Apple Macintosh SUN NFS MACH vs Amoeba Windows 3.0 GNU / Linux EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  21. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PD-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe DEC PDP-8 Intel 4004 CRAY-1 Ethernet, WYSIWYG, Mouse Altair 8800 BASIC, CP/M Apple II, PET, Atari DEC VAX 11/780 Visicalc, WordStar IBM PC Apple Macintosh SUN NFS MACH vs Amoeba Windows 3.0 GNU / Linux Windows NT EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  22. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PD-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe DEC PDP-8 Intel 4004 CRAY-1 Ethernet, WYSIWYG, Mouse Altair 8800 BASIC, CP/M Apple II, PET, Atari DEC VAX 11/780 Visicalc, WordStar IBM PC Apple Macintosh SUN NFS MACH vs Amoeba Windows 3.0 GNU / Linux Windows NT Mosaic, Netscape, IE EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  23. The OS Evolution Operating Systems OS Complexity BINAC ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 701 UNIVAC 1103A FORTRAN Burroughs B5000 IBM 7090 DEC PD-1 IBM System/360 GE-645 Mainframe DEC PDP-8 Intel 4004 CRAY-1 Ethernet, WYSIWYG, Mouse Altair 8800 BASIC, CP/M Apple II, PET, Atari DEC VAX 11/780 Visicalc, WordStar IBM PC Apple Macintosh SUN NFS MACH vs Amoeba Windows 3.0 GNU / Linux Windows NT Mosaic, Netscape, IE Internet Appliance ios Android OS Google Chrome Internet of Things EDSAC and EDVAC Transistor 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

  24. Evolution of Operating Systems Operating Systems • Early Systems (1950) • Simple Batch Systems (1960) • Multiprogrammed Batch Systems (1970) • Time-Sharing and Real-Time Systems (1970) • Personal/Desktop Computers (1980) • Multiprocessor Systems (1980) • Networked/Distributed Systems (1980) • Web-based Systems (1990) • Virtualization … https://www.cs.rutgers.edu/~pxk/416/notes/01-intro.html 1st generation 1945 – 1955 - vacuum tubes, plug boards 2nd generation 1955 – 1965 - transistors, batch systems 3rd generation 1965 – 1980 - ICs and multiprogramming 4th generation 1980 – present - personal computers 5th generation - ??? - ubiquitousness, mobile,

  25. Chapter 2 Reading Quiz Computer Systems • What are the objectives of an OS? • What services does an OS provide? • What computer resources need management? • What hardware advancements facilitated OS development? • What is JCL? • What does SPOOLing stand for? • What is a Virtual Machine? Why Virtualize? • What differentiates Windows 7, UNIX, and Linux?

  26. 1. What are the Objectives of an OS? Computer Systems • Convenience • Make the computer more convenient to use • Efficiency • Efficient use of computer system resources • Accessibility • Uniformity • Ability to evolve • Permit effective development, testing, and introduction of new system functions without interfering with service

  27. 2. What Services does an OS provide? Computer Systems • Program development • Editors, debuggers, frameworks • Program execution • Initialization, scheduling • Access to I/O devices • Uniform interface, hides details • Controlled access to files • Authorization, sharing, caching • System access • Protection, authorization, resolve conflicts • Error detection and response • Hardware errors: memory error or device failure • Software errors: arithmetic errors, access forbidden memory locations errors • Accounting • Collect statistics (billing), monitor performance (future enhancements) Operating systems are among the most complex pieces of software ever developed...

  28. 3. What Resources need management? Computer Systems • Memory • Cache • Virtual • Secondary • Peripherals • Computer programs • User programs • Shared libraries • Concurrency / Synchronization • CPU cores

  29. 4. What H/W Advancements? Computer Systems • Memory protection (1960’s) • Do not allow the memory area containing the monitor to be altered by a user program. • Privileged instructions • Can be executed only by the resident monitor. • A trap occurs if a program tries these instructions. • Interrupts (1956) • Provide flexibility for relinquishing control to and regaining control from user programs. • Timer interrupts prevent a job from monopolizing the system.

  30. Characteristics of Early Systems Computer Systems • Early software: Assemblers, Libraries of common subroutines (I/O, Floating-point), Device Drivers, Compilers, Linkers. • Need significant amount of setup time. • Extremely slow I/O devices. • Very low CPU utilization. • But computer was very secure.

  31. Early Systems Computer Systems • Structure • Single user system. • Programmer/User as operator (Open Shop). • Large machines run from console. • Paper Tape or Punched cards.

  32. Early Computer System Computer Systems

  33. Offline Operation Computer Systems • Problem: • Card Reader slow, Printer slow (compared to Tape). • I/O and CPU could not overlap. • Solution: Offline Operation (Satellite Computers) • Speed up computation by loading jobs into memory from tapes while card reading and line printing is done off-line using smaller machines.

  34. Simple Batch Systems Computer Systems • Use of high-level languages, magnetic tapes. • Jobs are batched together by type of languages. • An operator was hired to perform the repetitive tasks of loading jobs, starting the computer, and collecting the output (Operator-driven Shop). • It was not feasible for users to inspect memory or patch programs directly.

  35. Simple Batch Systems Computer Systems • The user submits a job (written on cards or tape) to a computer operator. • The computer operator place a batch of several jobs on an input device. • A special program called the monitor, manages the execution of each program in the batch. • “Resident monitor” is always in main memory and available for execution. • Monitor utilities are loaded when needed. • Reduce setup time by batching similar jobs. • Alternate execution between user program and the monitor program. • Use Automatic Job Sequencing – automatically transfer control from one job when it finishes to another one. • Rely on available hardware to effectively alternate execution from various parts of memory.

  36. 5. What is JCL? Computer Systems • Job Control language is the language that provides instructions to the monitor: • what compiler to use • what data to use • Example of job format: ------->> • $FTN load/run the compiler. • $LOAD load object code (in place of compiler). • $RUN transfers control to user program. $JOB $FTN ... FORTRAN program ... $LOAD $RUN ... Data ... $END

  37. Operator-driven Shop Computer Systems

  38. Uniprogramming Computer Systems • I/O operations are exceedingly slow (compared to instruction execution). • A program containing even a very small number of I/O operations, will spend most of its time waiting for them. • Hence: poor CPU usage when only one program is present in memory.

  39. Batch Multiprogramming Computer Systems • Several jobs are kept in main memory at the same time, and the CPU is multiplexed among them.

  40. Concurrent Multiprogramming Computer Systems • Allows the processor to execute another program while one program must wait for an I/O device.

  41. Why Multiprogramming? Computer Systems • Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times. • Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to execute. • A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory. • One job selected and run via job scheduling. • When it has to wait, OS switches to another job.

  42. Multiprogramming Requirements Computer Systems • Hardware support: • I/O interrupts and DMA controllers in order to execute instructions while I/O device is busy. • Timer interrupts for CPU to gain control. • Memory management • several ready-to-run jobs must be kept in memory. • Memory protection (data and programs). • Software support from the OS: • For scheduling (which program is to be run next). • To manage resource contention.

  43. Multi (processor/core) Computer Systems • Traditionally, the computer has been viewed as a sequential machine. • Multiple control signals • Pipelining • Parallelism • Symmetric Multiprocessors (SMP) • 2 or more identical processors that share resources • Integrated OS to control jobs, tasks, files, data elements… • High degree of interaction/cooperation between processes • Multicore Computers • Single piece of silicon (die) • Independent processors + levels of cache • Intel Core i7 • Prefetching • Cluster computing • Loosely coupled - network • Client / server environment • Middleware • DME, RPC

  44. 6. What does Spool stand for? Computer Systems • Problem: • Card reader, Line printer and Tape drives slow • I/O and CPU could not overlap. • Solution: Spooling - • Overlap I/O of one job with the computation of another job (using double buffering, DMA, etc). • Technique is called SPOOLing: Simultaneous Peripheral Operation On Line.

  45. 7. What is a Virtual Machine? Computer Systems • Virtualization technology enables a single PC or server to simultaneously run multiple operating systems on a single platform. • The host OS can support many virtual machines, each with characteristics of a particular OS.

  46. 8. Windows, Unix, Linux? Computer Systems

  47. Modern OS Architecture Computer Systems

  48. Desktop Market Share Computer Systems

  49. Desktop Market Share Computer Systems

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