Logical Fallacies and Arguments

1. Logical Fallacies and Arguments Learning Exercises Definitions of Fallacies Identifying Logical Fallacies Creating Logical Fallacies Continuums of Logic Easily Confused Fallacies Overlapping Fallacies & the Red Herring Class

2. Fallacies of Simplicity

3. Fallacies of Relevance

4. Analogy – False Analogy Comparisons help elucidate new ideas and solutions for issues, but they can also take us so far away from the issue at hand that they become irrelevant. How similar are the two things compared? How different are they? Is the comparison effective or ineffective? 1) Drinking and marijuana 2) Child obesity and child abuse

5. Causal Relationship – Post Hoc • Scientists and lay people alike try to discern which factors cause certain effects, and there is often debate over how logical these assertions are. • How closely related do the items seem? What evidence suggests that there is a causal relationship between them. 1) It rains on campus. Student attendance decreases. 2) “If you’d been a better teacher, I would have learned the material better.”

6. Generalization – Hasty Generalization • We often employ generalizations to form patterns and make sense of the world. But this strategy can have detrimental effects when we don’t acknowledge that people often fall outside the “majority” and that many stereotypes have no legitimate basis in reality. • Is the generalization backed by evidence? For what purposes is the group generalized? 1) Most English majors are Democrats. 2) Only women are good at English.

7. Stating the Counterargument – Straw Man • In debates, stating the position of the counterargument reveals that you understand their points and gives you a common place from which to begin the debate. However, using this strategy to misrepresent and “dumb down” the opposition is a deliberate approach to argument that will take you away from the real issues. • What are the key points in the counterargument? How does this misrepresent or dumb down their argument? 1) The people who say obesity is a social problem, and not an individual one, think that we can never overcome the brainwashing of advertisements. 2) Gun control advocates want to take away every gun in America.

8. Character Evidence – Ad Hominem • Even in court rooms, we often find it useful to establish the character or credibility of a witness or defendant. However, when this character analysis has little to do with the issue and simply attacks the person in an attempt to discredit him or her, we have done little to logically advance our argument. • Are the points about his/ her character relevant to the debate? Does it make them legitimately less able to comment or perform in the debate? 1) Don’t appoint him designated driver. He’s had a DUI before. 2)Don’t believe what he says. He’s had a DUI before.

9. Agreed Upon Conventions – Bandwagon • In some realms, such as scientific research, reproducing the same results provides validity for an argument. When the preponderance of evidence and experts suggest that something is valid, then we often accept this majority opinion. However, many issues cannot be measured this way and the assent of the majority provides no basis for why an opinion is valid. • Is the majority a group of experts who have the knowledge to comment on the topic? 1) 7 out of 10 psychologists recommend drug intervention for severe cases of depression. 2) 7 out of 10 college students think it’s acceptable to cheat on quizzes and tests.

10. Easily Confused Fallacies Many logical fallacies are closely related, but have fine-tuned difference between them. Here are some ways to distinguish between the more popularly confused fallacies.

11. Overlapping Fallacies These fallacies often occur together because they are so closely related or because they can describe the same kind of faulty logic.

12. Red Herring Class • All of the following fallacies are attempts to take the debate off-topic and to avoid supporting one’s argument with logical evidence, making them categorizable as red herrings. But when identifying these fallacies, the more specific classes below will tell you more about the fallacy than simply calling it an off-topic red herring. • Straw man: distract opponents by misrepresenting their position • Bandwagon: distract opponents by calling them to join the group • Ad Populum: distract opponents by appealing to common values • Ad Hominem: distract opponents by demeaning their character

13. Identifying Logical Fallacies All of my friends drink energy drinks. They are totally safe. If we allow guns on campus, there will be more school shootings and massacres. Sylvestor Stallone is endorsing McCain. We need a tough president. Oprah Winfrey is voting for Obama. She knows so much about America and what is good for us. She really cares about the poor. Rush Limbaugh is a fat, angry slob. I can’t believe anyone listens to him. Michael Moore is a fat, angry slob. I can’t believe anyone listens to him. No one should die because they cannot afford health care, and no one should go broke because they get sick. If you agree, join us in posting this as your status for the rest of the day. I’d rather go naked than wear fur. The Social Security system works just fine. I get my check every month.

14. Identifying Logical Fallacies All my friends drink energy drinks. They are totally safe. “Friends” are a small sample. Not enough evidence to draw a logical conclusion. Hasty Generalization. Bandwagon.

15. Identifying Logical Fallacies Vote or Die. If we don’t vote, we won’t actually die. False Dilemma.

16. Identifying Logical Fallacies If we allow guns on campus, there will be more school shootings and massacres. If we don’t allow guns on campus, there will be more school shootings and massacres. Both sides must prove link between guns on campus and increased shootings. Slippery Slope. Ad Populum.

17. Identifying Logical Fallacies Sylvestor Stallone is endorsing McCain. Stallone is tough and we need a tough president. Oprah Winfrey is voting for Obama. She knows so much about America and what is good for us. She really cares about the poor. Celebrity endorsement is effective advertisement, but not logical! A person’s fame has no relevance to the quality of the product being endorsed. Ad Populum.

18. Identifying Logical Fallacies Rush Limbaugh is a fat, angry slob. I can’t believe anyone listens to him. Michael Moore is a fat, angry slob. I can’t believe anyone listens to him. Attack through name calling Ad Hominem

19. Identifying Logical Fallacies No one should die because they cannot afford health care, and no one should go broke because they get sick. If you agree, join us in posting this as your status for the rest of the day. Hospitals do treat emergency cases and county hospitals deliver babies, even without patient’s proof of insurance. Most areas have a free/low-cost clinic. There are options for low-cost insurance, or people can pay out of pocket. False Dilemma. Hasty Generalization. Begging the Question.

20. Identifying Logical Fallacies I’d rather go naked than wear fur. Nudity does nothing to protect harmed animals. Effectiveness of slogan based entirely on shock value (and attractive models!). Non Sequitur. Ad Populum.

21. Identifying Logical Fallacies The Social Security system works just fine. I get my check every month. Effectiveness of a system is not determined by one example. History of payments does not guarantee future payments, if there is no money to replace what is spent. Hasty Generalization. Forced Hypothesis.

22. Identifying Logical Fallacies Those protestors at Planned Parenthood are extremists who want to take away women's rights. Misrepresents opponent’s position. Ignores difference in defining terms (right vs. privilege). Use of “extremist” marginalizes the group to make them seem less significant. Straw Man

23. Identifying Logical Fallacies Every child a wanted child. It is possible to have mixed emotions (wanting and not-wanting at the same time). It is possible to move from not wanting to wanting. Most Americans oppose countries who eliminate populations of “unwanted” people (Nazi Germany, Rwanda). Overstatement. False Dilemma.

24. Creating Logical Fallacies Directions: Devise a logical fallacy to get yourself out of trouble in the following situations. Do not use the same logical fallacy more than once. 1. You slept through for your Chemistry final and want to make up the test. 2. You borrowed $100 from your roommate’s wallet and forgot to tell her. 3. You won’t be attending your family’s thanksgiving dinner because you’re going to the A&M vs. t.u. football game. 4. You ran a red light on the way to class. 5. You told your best friend’s girlfriend that he was cheating on her and he found out it was you. 6. You didn’t wash the dishes before a party and your spouse is livid. 7. You want to quit your intramural soccer team, but they will be short a player. 8. You forgot to pick up your girlfriend or boyfriend from the library. 9. You want to be forced into a class that is completely full. 10. You are trying to get out of a parking ticket for staying in the MSC 15-minute parking for 20 minutes. Creating Logical Fallacies Activity devised by Glenn Allen Phillips