Outline

1. Flexible Shaping:How learning in small steps helpsHierarchical Organization of Behavior, NIPS 2007 Kai Krueger and Peter Dayan Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit

2. Outline • Introduction • learning may require external guidance • shaping as a concept: • Set-Up • 12-AX task, LSTM network, shaping procedure • Results • simple shaping • when does shaping help most? • flexibility to adapt to variations • Conclusions, issues and future work • rules and habits

3. Introduction • Learning essential for flexibility • trial and error • external guidance: • “one shot teaching” by verbal explanation of abstract rules • imitation • shaping • Guidance critical for complex behavior • branching, working memory, rapid changes

4. Shaping • “a method of successive approximations” (Skinner 1938) • Key features: • external alteration of reward contingencies • withdrawal of intermittent rewards • Creates behavioral units • e.g. lever pressing of a rat • Separate time scales / branching points • by providing separate stages in shaping • Ubiquitously (and implicitly) in animal experiments

5. Demo 12-AX task

6. LSTM network • Long Short-Term memory (Hochreiter and Schmidthuber 1997)‏ • 3-layer recurrent neural network • Provides built-in mechanisms for: • working memory • gating (input, output and forget) • Abstract “over-simplified” model of PFC • basis to motivate PBWM (O’Reilly et al.)

7. Shaping procedure • Teach 12-AX as successive approximations • Separate WM timescales: • long: (1 / 2 ) • short: (AX/BY) • Learning in 7 stages • last stage: full 12-AX • Resource allocation • currently done by hand • each stage learned into a new block • all other memory blocks disabled • provides separation / No interference

8. Simple shaping • Improvement in learning times: • 8 fold decrease (only final stage) • significantly better (including complete training) • median: 13 epochs, min: 8 epochs • Need the 4 stages of shaping 1 and 2 • High variance in shaping times

9. What makes shaping work • Robustness to additional structure: • irrelevant “experience” • related and unrelated tasks / inputs • Resource allocation: • interference between tasks => no benefits

10. Shaping: when is it useful? • Can shaping prevent scaling of learning time with task complexity? • One aspect of complexity: Temporal credit assignment • increase the outer loop length => higher temporal complexity • Results: • training time still increases, but scales much slower. • increasing complexity=> shaping more important

11. Rule abstraction • Rule abstraction: • flexibility to cope with change in statistics • Train on the base 12-AX task (loop length 4) • Test with variations • loop lengths 4, 5, 12, 40 • disable learning • Should perform perfectly • abstract rules have not changed

12. Generalisation • Generalisation: • cope with yet unseen data (inner loop combinations) • Train 12-AX task without AZ and CX • Test performance on full task • Only 7 combinations • one valid generalisation only? • Mixed results: • differences in emphasis (1-back / 0-back) • overall shaping still better

13. Reversal learning • Reverse stimulus – rule association • shape all components needed • Repeatedly reverse (after 500 epochs) • learning of reversals. • Identify flexibility to perform reversals • unshaped: mostly fails • shaped: succeeds more often

14. Conclusions • Shaping works • Reduces learning times • Helps learning long time delays • separating time scales of actions • recombine “behavioral units” into sequences • Improves abstraction and separation • Increases flexibility to reversals • Take home message: • need to take sequential and transfer learning more into account when looking at learning architectures. • Still issues to solve though

15. Limitations • Resource allocation • prime computational issue • done by hand (Homunculus) • ideas to automate: • compute “responsibilities” • Mosaic • Experimental data • no published data on learning 12-AX • interesting manipulations: • loop length, target frequency, … • natural grouping of alphabet

16. Future Work • Still based on “habitual” learning => no instant reprogramming • Need additional mechanisms: • more explicit rules • variable substitution • Bilinear rules framework:(Dayan 2007) • recall • match • execute • Close interaction between habitual and rule based learning • rules supervise habit learning • habits form basis of rule execution • Results in a task grammar?

17. Thank you Questions?

18. Shaping in computational work • Surprisingly few implementations: • instead: elaborate learning framework to learn in one go • Learning grammars: simple examples first (Elman 1993) • “self simplification” by network limitations • Robotics • learning in a grid world (Singh1992) • (Dorigo and Colombetti 1998) • robot vs animal shaping (Savage 1998)

19. Shaping procedure • Remembering “1” and “2” • anything following a 1 => L / 2 => R • progressively increase loop length • 1-back memory for A / B • unconditional CPT-AX • 2 Separate stages for A and B

20. LSTM network

21. Examples of learning in LSTM

22. Shaping at work

23. Rule abstraction

24. Reversal learning continued

25. Alternative shaping paths • Not all shaping paths have equal properties • Trivial shaping path: • each stage full 12-AX rules • increase loop length from 1 through 4 • Similar training time, but bad generalisation

26. Rules • individual rules: • recall • match • execute